imnMiY OF mums^ 

€!)ap. 4=0\ 



I' X IT Li) STATES OK Ml UJICA. 



THE 

ENEMIES TO AGRICULTURE, 

BOTANICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL; 

BEING A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF 

THE WEEDS, 

QUADEUPEDS, BIRDS, INSECTS, AND WORMS, 

WHICH ARE 

mJURIOUS TO THE FARMER, 

WITH THE BEST MEANS OF 

THEIR EXTIRPATION OR DIMINUTION, 



BY 

JOHN DONALDSON, 

PROFESSOR OP AGRICULTURE AND BOTANY AT HODDESDON, HERTS. 



LONDON: ROBERT BALDWIN. 



1847. 




LONDON : 

GEORGE WOODFALL AND SON, 

ANGEL COURT, SKINNBB STREET. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I.— BOTANICAL. 

WEEDS. 

Sect. I. — On Tillage Land — page 

1. Chick weed — Stellaria 4 

2. Vernal sandwort — Arenaria verna .... 6 

3. Corn spurrey — Spergula arvensis .... 7 

4. Veronica hederifolia 9 

6. Corn crowsfoot — Ranunculus arvensis . . .10 

6. Corn cockle — Agrostemma 11 

7. Corn poppy — Papaver Rhaeas 12 

8. Wild mustard — Sinapis arvensis . . . .13 

9. Hedge mustard — Erysimum barbarea . . .14 

10. Gromwell — Lithospermum 16 

11. Coltsfoot— Tussilago 17 

12. Ragwort groundsel — Sonecio 18 

13. Sowthistle — Sonchus 19 

14. Spearthistle — Carduus lanceolatus . . . .20 

15. Field-thistle — Carduus arvensis . . . .21 

16. The Dock— Rumex 22 

17. Cornbind — Convolvulus arvensis . . . .23 

18. Knot grass — Polygonum aviculare . . . .24 

19. Fumitory — Fumaria 25 

20. Rest harrow — Ononis 26 

21. Fern — Pteris aquilina 27 

22. Horsetail — Equisetum 28 

23. Mouse-ear — Cerastium 29 

24. Melilot— Trifolium melilotus 30 

25. Feverfew — Pyrethrum 30 

26. Corn marygold — Crysanthemum . . . .31 

27. Mint— Mentha 32 

28. Bluebottle— Centaurea 33 

29. Corn chamomile — Anthemis 34 

30. Oat-like soft grass — Holcus avenaceus . . .35 

31. Wheat grass — Triticum 37 

32. Wild oat— Avena fatua 38 

Sect. II. — On Meadow or Pasture Land — 

1. Cotton grass — Eriophorum 39 

2. Hog weed — Heracleum 40 

3. Wild cicely, or chervil — Chaerophyllum . . .41 

4. Rush plant — Juncus 42 

5. Tansey — Tanacetum 43 

6. Yellow rattle — Rhinanthus 43 

7. Yarrow, sneeze wort — Achillese , . . . .45 

8. Pilewort — Ficaria 46 

9. Cud weed — Gnaphalium 46 

10. Marsh marygold — Caltha palustris . . . .47 



IV 



CONTENTS. 



Weeds on Meadow or Pasture Lands — continued. ^ page 

11. Nettle — Urtica 48 

12. Dandelion — Leontodon 48 

13. Garlick — Allium .49 

14. Lousewort — Pedicularis 50 

15. Self-heal— Prunella 51 

16. Wild campion — Lychnis 52 

17. Dyer's broom — Genista 52 

18. Orchis 53 

19. Eye-bright — Euphrasia 55 

20. Sedge grass— Carex 56 

21. Black knap weed — Centaurea 57 

22. Wood anemone — Anemone nemorosa . . .58 

23. Water cowbane — Cicuta 59 

24. Meadow saffron — Colchicum 60 

25. Treacle mustard — Thlaspi 61 

26. Goose tansy — Potentilla 62 

27. Rushes — Juncus 63 

28. Docks— Rumex 63 

29. Bistort — Polygonum bistorta . . . . .63 

30. Rest harrow — Ononis 64 

31. Thistles— Carduus 64 

32. Ox-eye — Chrysanthemum leucanthemum . . 64 

33. Crowsfoot plants — Ranunculus . . . .64 

34. Mint— Mentha 65 

35. Mouse-ear scorpion grass — Myosotis . . .65 

36. Rag wort — Senecio Jacobea 65 

37. Mosses— Musci 65 

PART II.—ZOOLOGICAL. 

Class L — Quadrupeds : — , . . 71 

The Fox 72 

The Polecat . . . . . , . .75 

The Hare , . .77 

The Rabbit 80 

The Mole 82 

The Rat . . 85 

The Mouse . .86 

Class XL— Birds :— 

The Rook 88 

The Pigeon . . 90 

The Woodpigeon .91 

The Pheasant 92 

Class IIL — Insects : — 

The Caterpillar 94 

The Turnip Fly . . . . . . .95 

The Aphis . .96 

. . The Weevil ........ 98 

Class IV. — Worms : — 

TheWireworm 99 

The Snail 100 



THE 



ENEMIES TO AGRICULTURE. 



PART I. BOTANICAL. 

On the Weeds of Agriculture. 

A WEED is any plant that is useless for, or noxious to, any 
intended purpose in the production of vegetables. It has 
no definite application to any particular plant or species of 
plants; but whatever plants grow among corn, grass, or 
in hedges, and which are either of no use to man, or inju- 
rious to crops, are denominated "weeds;" and every plant 
which grows in a field other than that of which the seed has 
been sown by the husbandman, and inasmuch as it in- 
terferes with the intended crop, should be carefully eradi- 
cated. Farming is, that nothing grow on land except what 
is sown ; and though this object may not be attainable, as 
there may ever be a wide difference between possible and 
ideal excellence, yet the nearer we approach to it the nearer 
we approach to perfection. And if it be absurd to expect 
perfection in any art or performance, there can be neither 
foolishness nor absurdity in making the nearest possible 
approaches to it. 

Though the plants of nature which are called "weeds" 
are both useless and injurious to the purpose of the farmer, 
we must not suppose that on that account they have been 
created in vain, or that nature has used its efforts in pro- 
ducing useless objects. The mind that is capable of behold- 
ing the creation in a comprehensive and condensed focus, 
will arrive at a very different conclusion, and will not be- 
lieve that any productions are useless, even those for which 

B 



2 



WEEDS. 



the discoveries of man have not yet found any appUcation. 
It must not be imagined that the stores of nature are ex- 
hausted ; and far less that the hmited powers of man are able 
fully to investigate and explain the nature and use of the 
numerous objects that catch his eye and engage his atten- 
tion. Past and present experience have shown that the 
medicinal uses of weedy plants are very great ; and from them 
are obtained the drugs that tend most powerfully to check 
and remove the disorders of the human frame. This one 
property very sufficiently vindicates their claim to a high 
place of utility, and rescues them from a useless degradation. 
When the vegetation has reached the maturity of full blossom, 
tlie structure forms a body of hgneous and vascular matter, 
which being used in decomposition, forms the very best ma- 
nure that is yet known : for of all the ingredients that acces- 
sory science is daily bringing into use for the purpose of fer- 
tilizing the earth, and stimulating the growth of plants, no 
competitor has yet appeared that is capable of contesting the 
foremost place which decaying vegetable matters have held 
in the scale of manures, ever since the art of agriculture was 
practised by man. These two invaluable properties being 
duly considered, will convince that, when any production of 
nature is found to be useless for some specific purpose, or 
hurtful to any object that is desired to be attained, the con- 
clusion must not be drawn, that it is on that account to be 
reckoned some careless or superfluous item thrown heedlessly 
from the lap of nature's bounty, and about which it has not 
exercised the provisionary and fitting aptitude that is so 
abundantly displayed in the stupendous magnificence and 
minute care that pervade every fabrication of nature's work- 
shop. Nothing more powerfully tends to elevate the mind 
of man, than the contemplation of the works of nature; and 
profound and serious thoughts are very agreeably relieved by 
passing from the grand to the minute, there to admire, with 
equal adoration, the plastic hand that paints the crocus and 
the lilac, and which has essayed its art in heaving pile upon 
pile to form mountains almost to scale the vault of heaven. 
It is most pleasing and instructive to a contemplative man to 



WEEDS. 



3 



observe and follow the graduated scale of natural objects that 
daily and hourly occur for observation and reflection, begin- 
ning with the lowly plants on which he treads, and which he 
may think are useless, and following the upward course of 
nature till he arrives at the utmost bounds of comprehension, 
and finally loses himself in immensity. Such a course of ob- 
servation and reflection is most necessary in order to draw 
just conclusions about the works of nature, to raise the ideas 
above a mole-eyed plodding in the world's mud, and the clay- 
born sympathies and cold contemplations that are engendered 
by the mind being chained to the earth it inhabits. 

The word weed" must, therefore, be understood as a plant 
that is useless for a certain purpose, and for which a better 
agent has been found ; and as being hurtful to another plant, 
which has been found to be the most valuable, yet known to 
yield the purpose that is desired ; and that these plants are 
only useless and hurtful in the light in which we view them, 
or for the purposes of agriculture. 

The tillage part of agriculture is formed entirely of a con- 
tinual warfare between the cultivator and the weeds that 
grow on the land : and as in farming nothing should grow 
except what is sown, the efficiency of cultivation is judged 
by the presence or absence of the useless growths that appear 
on the ground. And as the removal of all useless vegetation 
is the main object of arable culture, a knowledge of the na- 
ture of the plants that are included in the name of "weeds" 
may prove useful when accompanied with a description of the 
easiest and most approved modes of eradication. 

Weeds being many in number, some division or classifica- 
tion becomes necessary, in order to elucidate the subject, and 
relieve the memory. The most suitable arrangement appears 
to be into — I. Annual; II. Biennial; III. Perennial. The 
periods of their duration are thus distinguished, and there will 
be added the nature of the soil on which each plant is most 
abundant. 

Annual weeds are such as die after perfecting the seeds in 
the first year. They produce seeds very abundantly, and on 
light soils give much trouble. 

B 2 



4 



WEEDS. 



Biennial weeds perish in the second year after perfecting 
the seeds. They are abundant in the production of seeds, as 
/ well as of plants, and are destroyed with greater difficulty 
than the former division. 

The Perennial plants are such as exist for an indefinite pe- 
riod of time : some have the property of perfecting the seeds 
annually, without being thereby destroyed ; while others, less 
prolific in seeds, have the faculty of reproduction in their 
vivacious roots ; while others are capable of increase both by 
seeds and roots. The plants of this description are much 
more troublesome and difficult of destruction than the two 
former divisions. 

For a practical description, the weeds of agriculture may be 
very conveniently divided into those that infest tillage lands, 
and the kinds that are found in pasture grounds ; and a third 
may be added — those that grow in hedge-rows and planta- 
tions, and are occasionally found on cultivated lands. 

Sect. I. — Tillage Land Weeds. 

1. "Common chickweed," or " Stellaria Media" of bo- 
tanists, is a very common weed on Hght loams that have been 
abundantly manured. This genus of plants has been called 
" Stellaria," from the star-like form of the flowers : it formed 
the " Alsine" of the older botany, and so called because the 
plant grows best in woods and shady places. Dr. Withering 
referred it to the " Stellaria," with which genus it agrees in 
various respects, and especially in the capsules opening with 
six valves. The British Flora also refers it to the genus 
" Stellaria," and characterizes it under the species " Media." 

The genus " Stellaria " belongs to the class and order 
"Decandria trigynia" of Linneus, and to the natural order 
"Caryophyllese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character, — Calyx : perianth five-leaved ; leaflets 
ovate-lanceolate, concave, acute, spreading, permanent. 
Corolla : petals five, two-parted, flat, oblong, shrivelhng. 
Stamina : filaments ten, filiform, shorter than the corolla — 
alternately longer and shorter ; anthers roundish. Pistil : 



CHICKWEED. 



5 



germs roundish ; styles three, capillary spreading; stigmas 
obtuse. Pericarp : capsule ovate, covered, one-celled, six- 
valved. Seeds very many, roundish, compressed. 

Essential character'. — Calyx five-leaved, spreading. Pe- 
tals five, two-parted. Capsule superior, one-celled, many- 
seeded, six-toothed at top. 

The species of common chickweed assumes very different 
appearances in different soils and situations : it thrives in all 
soils, from the damp and boggy vv^oods to the driest gravel- 
walk in gardens, and is often seen with leaves near two inches 
long, and more than an inch broad, and the height sometimes 
exceeding half a yard. The number of stamens is uncertain : 
in damp situations, with a northern aspect, they amount to 
ten ; and in drier soils, and in more sunny exposures, the 
number is usually three to five. The leaves are ovated, and 
the stalks procumbent, having the lateral line alternately 
hairy. When the flowers first open, the peduncles are up- 
right ; as the flowers go off, they hang down ; and when the 
seeds ripen, they again become upright. The flowers open 
from nine in the morning till noon ; but are shut during rain. 
They are pendent after rain ; but, in the course of a few days, 
rise again. At night, the leaves approach in pairs, so as to 
inclose between their upper surfaces the tender buds ; and 
the two upper leaves but one at the end of the stalk are 
furnished with longer petioles than the others, so that they 
can close upon the terminating pair, and protect the end of 
the branch. This is always mentioned as a very remarkable 
instance of the sleep of plants. 

The "Stellaria media" is distinguished from the "Ceras- 
tiums " by the number of pistils, and by having the petals 
shorter than the leaves of the calyx ; and particularly from 
the " Stellaria nemorum," by having the stalk alternately 
hairy on one side only. The young shoots and leaves, when 
boiled, can scarcely be distinguished from spring spinach, and 
are equally wholesome. Swine are very fond of it ; cows and 
horses eat it ; sheep are careless of it; and goats refuse it. It 
is a very grateful food to small birds and young chickens, 
and it is eaten by many insects. As a medicine, it was 



6 



WEEDS. 



formerly used very extensively ; but the application of it is 
now^ reduced to swellings, either alone or in poultices. The 
medicinal virtues are acknowledged ; but the active matter is 
small in comparison with the grosser parts, and is very far 
divided and diluted in the herb. 

The common chickweed is an annual plant, and flowers 
almost throughout the whole year. In gardens, on dung- 
hills, and on soft, light loamy lands that have been abund- 
antly manured, it grows luxuriantly, and sheds an abundance 
of seeds, which are round, compressed, yellow, and rough, with 
little tubercles, and thus becomes a troublesome weed. On 
soils that suit its temper, it is uncommonly tenacious of life ; 
and if the weather be damp and showery, the roots immedi- 
ately adhere to the soil, and the plant grows afresh, after 
being removed by the hoe and the scuffler. The great object 
is to prevent its perfecting any seed : but, as it grows almost 
during the whole year, the difficulty is almost insuperable. 
It is very hurtful to young turnips, clovers, carrots, and all 
slow-growing seeds. A close crop of vetches smothers it very 
readily. The most effectual way of clearing light lands from 
such a very troublesome weed, is to gather up the plants 
during dry weather, after being well shaken by the hand, and 
cleared from the adhering earth. The plant is naturally juicy 
and succulent; and, upon being laid into a heap, it quickly 
ferments and decomposes into an earthy mass. Cool earths 
may afterwards be added, as loam and effete lime, and a very 
good compost will be thus obtained. When the plant is 
pulled up by the hoe in order to be removed, it should be full 
grown, but before the seeds are formed, 

2. The "Vernal sand wort," or "Arenaria verna," is a very 
troublesome weed on hght moorish soils. The genus of plants 
is so called from the Latin word " arena," meaning " sand," 
in strict allusion to its native soil. It belongs to the class 
and order " Decandria Trigynia" of Linneus, and the natural 
order Caryophylleee" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth five-leaved ; leaf- 
lets oblong, acuminate, spreading, permanent. Corolla : 
petals five, ovate, entire. Stamina : filaments ten, subulate 



VERNAL SAND WORT. CORN SPURREY. 



7 



(five alternately inferior); anthers roundish. Pistil: germ 
ovate ; styles from erect, reflex ; stigmas thickish. Pericarp : 
capsule ovate, covered, one-celled, three or six valved. Seeds 
very many, kidney-shaped. The number of stamens is not 
constant. 

Essential generic character. — Calyx : five-leaved, expand- 
ing ; petals five, entire. Capsule one-celled, many-seeded. 

The weedy species of the "Arenarise" in Britain, is the 
" Arenaria verna,^' or " vernal sand wort." Leaves subulate, 
rather obtuse ; stem panicled ; petals obovate, longer than 
the calyx, three-nerved ; nerves, distant, equal. Root peren- 
nial, long, much-branched. Stems numerous, five or six inches 
high, round, somewhat pubescent and viscid, branched at the 
base, and panicled above. Leaves erect, patent, subulate, 
rather obtuse, three-nerved beneath ; and above, channelled, 
connate, and spreading at the base; bracteas ovate, short, 
three-nerved ; peduncles erect, pubescent ; leaflets of the 
calyx acute, hairy, three-nerved ; margins membranous ; 
petals longer than the calyx, obovate, obtuse ; anthers fleshy ; 
capsule longer than the calyx, cylindrical, three-valved ; seeds 
almost kidney-shaped, rough, compressed. It flowers from 
May to August. 

This plant does not grow so abundantly or luxuriantly as 
the " Stellaria media," and consequently it is less trouble- 
some, and is much easier extirpated. It generally yields to 
the repetitions of the scufl[ler and the hoe ; but when it is very 
abundant, it may be gathered oW the land, as recommended 
in the case of " chickweed." 

3. The " Corn spurrey," or Spergula arvensis," is a plant 
of much notoriety, both as a weed, and in cultivation. The 
plant belongs to the class and order ^'Decandria pentagynia" 
of Linneus, and the natural order " Caryophyllese " of Jus-* 
sieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of five ovate, 
obtuse, concave, spreading, permanent leaves* Corolla : 
petals five, ovate, concave, spreading, undivided, larger than 
the calyx. Stamina : filaments ten, rarely but five, awl-shaped, 
shorter than the corolla ; anthers roundish. Pistil : germen 
superior, ovate • styles five, somewhat reflexed, thread- 



8 



WEEDS. 



shaped; stigmas thickish. Pericarp: capsule ovate, covered 
partly by the calyx, of one cell, and five valves. Seeds numer- 
ous, globose, but depressed, surrounded v^^ith more or less of 
a notched or dilated border. 

Essential generic character. — Calyx of five leaves ; petals 
five, undivided. Capsule superior, ovate, of one cell, with five 
valves. 

This genus differs from the " Cerastium," in having un- 
divided petals. Their general habit also differs more than is 
the case with most genera of this natural order, that of 
" Spergula" nearly according with various " Arenariae," from 
which the five styles only distinguish it. The smooth-seeded 
spurrey has but five stamens. 

The " Spergula arvensis," or " rough-seeded corn spurrey," 
is the most common species in Britain. Leaves in whorles, 
forming two bundles, about eight in each ; stalks of the fruit 
reflexed. Seeds kidney-shaped, angular, rough. Root annual, 
small, fibrous. Herb more or less downy and viscid, very 
various in luxuriance, somewhat succulent and brittle, with a 
branched, round, loosely spreading stem, a foot in length, 
swelling globular, whose joints are beset with copious whorled, 
linear, obtuse leaves. Panicles many-flowered, terminal, 
forked, divaricated, level-topped. Flower stalks downy, 
strongly reflexed from the base, as the fruit ripens. Stipules 
in pairs at the joints. Calyx, membranous at the edge, nearly 
as long as the white petals. Stamens, generally ten, sometimes 
five, or some intermediate number. Capsule, almost twice as 
long as the calyx. Seeds numerous, kidney-shaped, or 
roundish, swelling, angular, with an obsolete, not dilated, nor 
membranous border ; when ripe, they are black, and rough all 
over with minute tubercles or bristles. Poultry are fed with 
the seeds, and the herb serves as fodder over the continent of 
Euro])e. 

" Spurrey " is a very troublesome weed on a light soil. It 
flowers from July to September. The bulk is not great, nor 
the growth luxuriant; yet it is quick and very tenacious of 
life, and produces seeds in a very plentiful manner. In 
northern damp climates, whole fields of moorish light soils 
are so much infested with it, that the crop is often wholly de- 



VERONICA. 



9 



stroyed. In such cases of an abundance of the plant, the 
gathering it off by hand-shaking, will be the most effectual 
mode of relieving the land from such a pest. 

A larger variety of the ^' Spergula arvensis " is cultivated 
as excellent food for milch cows. 

4. The " Veronica hederifoha " is a weed of importance on 
soft loams, and on land of a strength to produce both wheat 
and green crops. 

The genus belongs to the class and order " Diandria 
monogynia " of Linneus, and the natural order Pedicu- 
lares" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of one leaf, 
in four, rarely five, deep, lanceolate, acute, som^imes obovate, 
permanent segments. Corolla : of one petal, wheel-shaped. 
Tube almost as long as the calyx ; hmb, flat, in four deep, 
ovate, unequal segments, the lowermost narrowest, the oppo- 
site one broadest. Stamens : filaments two, inserted into the 
tube of the corolla, spreading, ascending, tapering down- 
wards ; anthers roundish, oblong. Pistil : germen superior, 
compressed ; style thread-shaped, the length of the stamens 
dechning ; stigma simple, obtuse. Pericarp : capsule in- 
versely heart-shaped, or somewhat elliptical, compressed in 
the upper part, of two cells, and two more or less cloven 
valves ; seeds numerous, roundish. 

Essential character. — ■ Corolla four-cleft, wheel-shaped, 
the lower segment, narrowest. Capsule superior, of two 
cells. 

The " Veronica " is a very natural genus, and an extensive 
one, extending to eighty-five species, which are commodiously 
and naturally arranged by their inflorescence. 

The ivy-leaved " Speedwell," which we now mention as a 
weed, has the flowers solitary. Leaves heart-shaped, flat, and 
five-lobed. Segments of the calyx heart-shaped, acute. 
Seeds cupped, wrinkled. Root annual, small, fibrous. 
Flowers pale blue, on long, solitary, axillary foot-stalks. It 
is sometimes called " Small henbit and in Norfolk the name 
is " Winter weed." 

This plant flowers in April and May^ and seldom later. It 



10 



WEEDS. 



is a native of Europe and Barbaiy, and grows in gardens, 
fields, and waste grounds. The presence of it is not very- 
troublesome, and it yields readily to cultivation by the hoe 
and the scuffler. 

5. The " Ranunculus arvensis," or " Corn crowsfoot," is 
a very common weed on clay lands, which have an upper soil 
of a soft damp nature. The plant belongs to the class and 
order " Polyandria polygynia " of Linneus, and the natural 
order " Ranunculacese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth, of five ovate, con- 
cave, somewhat coloured, deciduous leaves. Corolla : petals 
five, obtuse, polished, with small clawed nectary, a cavity in 
each petal, jtst above the claw. Stamina : filaments very 
numerous, half the length of the corolla; anthers firmly 
united therewith, erect, oblong, obtuse, of two separate lobes. 
Pistil : germens numerous, collected into a head ; styles none ; 
stigmas reflexed, very small. Pericarp none. Receptacle 
beset with extremely minute stalks, to which the seeds are 
attached. Seeds numerous, naked, irregular, uncertain in 
figure, with a reflexed point. 

Essential character. — Calyx five-leaved. Petals five to 
eight, with a honey-bearing pore in the claw of each. Seeds 
naked. 

The most essential mark of this genus is the nectary ; the 
rest of the parts being uncertain. The nectary is, in some 
species, a naked pore ; in some, it is bordered with a cylin- 
drical margin ; in others closed with a notched scale. 

The "Ranunculus arvensis," or "Corn crowsfoot," has 
the root annual and fibrous. Stem one or two feet high, 
much-branched, many -flowered, leafy, nearly smooth. 
Leaves of a light green colour, slightly hairy, stalked, once 
or twice ternate, as well as deeply three-cleft; the ultimate 
segments almost linear, entire, or rarely notched. Flowers 
small, lemon-coloured, stalked, lateral and terminal. Calyx 
spreading, hairy. Petals obovate, veined. Fruit depressed. 
Seeds very large, compressed, with erect, awl-shaped, hooked 
beaks, their sides armed with numerous prominent awl-shaped 
prickles, largest towards the margin. 



CORN CROWSFOOT. CORN COCKLE. 



11 



The genus " Ranunculus " is very extensive, reaching to 
eighty-five species; fifteen are natives of Britain. The species 
are all herbaceous, generally of an acrid quality. The pre- 
vailing colour of the flowers is yellow. They grow in cold 
temperate climates, and some of the plants are Alpine. The 
whole genus is very conveniently divided into two sections, 
by the form of the leaves. 

The species which we now notice as a weed, is one of the 
most virulent of its genus, especially when young; causing 
inflammations and gangrene in the stomachs of sheep and 
oxen, although it is eaten by them with great avidity. The 
expressed juice of the plant is also fatal. 

The Ranunculus produces seeds in great abundance, and 
the corn crowsfoot being an annual plant, nature has fur- 
nished it with the prolific seed-bearing quality which attaches 
to the plants of that period of duration, in order to compen- 
sate for the short existence of the stem. No process of sum- 
mer fallowing can kill the numerous seeds ; and as the lands 
on which it grows are not suitable for drilled green crops, 
there becomes a necessity that the wheat crops be drilled, in 
order to give an opportunity of pulling the plants by hand 
at the time when they are in full blossom, and when no seed 
has been formed. It is frequently called ^' Hunger weed," 
probably from its growing on the poorer soils. 

6. The " Corn cockle," or " Agostemma " of botany, is 
a common weed in corn fields, mostly on clayey loams, or the 
more loamy wheat fallows. It belongs to the class and order 
" Decandria pentagynia " of Linneus, and to the natural 
order " Caryophyllese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth one-leaved, coria- 
ceous, tubulous, five-toothed, permanent. Corolla: petals 
five, claws the length of the tube of the calyx ; border spread- 
ing, obtuse. Stamina : filaments awl-shaped, five alternately 
later than the other five, inserted into each claw of the petals ; 
anthers simple. Pistil : germ ovate ; styles filiform, erect, the 
length of the stamens ; stigmas simple. Pericarp : capsule 
oblong, ovate, covered, one-celled, five-valved. Seeds very 
many, kidney-shaped, dotted ; receptacles three, as many as 
seeds ; the interior ones gradually longer. 



12 



WEEDS. 



Essential character. — Calyx one-leaved, coriaceous; 
petals five, clawed border, obtuse, undivided. Capsule one- 
celled. 

There are four species, of which the " Agostemma githago," 
or the " Corn cockle " or campion, is the common British 
plant. It is hirsute or hairy. Calyx longer than the corolla ; 
petals entire, or shghtly emarginate, and naked. It flowers 
in June and July, and has a very beautiful appearance. The 
seeds ripen about the time of harvest ; and from the size, they 
cannot be easily separated from the corn in sifting ; the farina is 
oily, and when ground with the corn, it greatly deteriorates 
the flour. The only mode of extirpation is by hand-weeding, 
and by driUing the grain crops for that purpose. 

7. The " Corn poppy," or " Papaver rhseas" of botany, 
infests some soils at particular seasons. It belongs to the 
class and order ^' Polyandria monogynia" of Linneus, and 
the natural order Papaveracese" of Jussieu. 

Generic cliaracter. — Calyx : perianth inferior, ovate, emar- 
ginate, of two nearly ovate, concave, obtuse, immediately de- 
ciduous leaves. Corolla : petals four, roundish, flattish, 
spreading, large, contracted at the base, alternately smaller. 
Stamina : filaments numerous, capillary, inserted into the 
receptacle, much shorter than the corolla ; anthers oblong, 
compressed, erect, obtuse. Pistil : germen superior, ses- 
sile, large, roundish ; style none ; stigma depressed, peltate, 
flat, radiated. Pericarp : capsule oval, or somewhat ob- 
long, crowned with the large, flat, permanent stigma of one 
cell, though imperfectly divided into many, bursting at the 
top by numerous orifices under the stigma. Seeds numerous, 
minute ; receptacles, longitudinal folds, attached to the inside 
of the capsule, equal in number to the rays of the stigma. 

Essential cliaracter. — Calyx of two leaves; petals four; 
stigma radiated. Capsule superior, of one cell, opening by 
pores under the permanent stigma. 

There are two divisions of the poppy plant, with the cap- 
sules bristly and smooth. The common " red poppy," or 
the corn rose," belongs to the second section. The cap- 
sules are smooth, nearly globular. Stem many-flowered, 
rough, with horizontal hairs. Leaves pinnatifid, cut. The 



CORN POPPY. WILD MUSTARD. 



13 



root is annual. Stem about two feet high, branched, clothed 
all over with bristly hairs, that all spread horizontally. 
Leaves pinnatifid, often in some degree bi-pinnatifid, their 
segments oblong, serrated, and cut, more or less hairy. 
Flowers sHghtly fetid, and of a deep and most brilHant 
scarlet-red colour. Capsule quite smooth and even, short 
and abrupt, with a many-rayed stigma. 

The poppy flowers in June and July, and perfects a pro- 
fusion of seeds. It delights to grow on waste grounds, and 
on badly managed cultivated fields ; good tillage soon de- 
stroys it ; clover and tares, which are cut while the poppy is 
in flower, generally eradicate it. It will increase rapidly, if 
the seeds be allowed to ripen ; in some seasons the plant 
appears in great abundance, and in others, not a plant will 
be seen. 

8. The Wild mustard, or ^' Sinapis arvensis," is an annual 
weed of much annoyance on some of the best soils. The 
" Sinapis " belongs to the class and order " Tetradynamia 
sihquosa" of Linneus, and the natural order " Cruciferse" of 
Jussieu. 

Geyieric character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, spreading, 
divided into four linear, concave, channelled leaves, forming 
a cross, deciduous. Corolla cruciform, of four rounded, flat, 
spreading, undivided petals, with erect, linear claws, scarcely 
the length of the calyx. Nectary composed of four ovate 
glands, one on each side, between the shorter stamen and the 
pistil, and one each side between the longer stamen and the 
calyx. Stamina : filaments six, awl-shaped, erect, the two 
shorter ones opposite ; anthers erect, spreading, pointed. 
Pistil : germen superior, cylindrical ; style the length of the 
germen, and height of the stamens ; stigma capitate, un- 
divided. Pericarp : pod oblong, inflated unequally at the 
lower part, rough, of two cells, and two valves ; partition 
generally twice as long as the valves, large, compressed. 
Seeds numerous, globular. 

Essential character. — Calyx widely spreading ; claws of 
the petals straight ; nectariferous glands, four ; pod more or 
less cylindrical ; the partition longer than the valves. 



14 



WEEDS. 



The " Sinapis" differs chiefly from the " Brassica/' or 
turnip plant, in having a spreading calyx, and the claws of 
the petals erect. 

The " Sinapis arvensis " has the root annual, fusiform. 
Stem, from nine inches to a foot and a half in height, up- 
right, rough, with a few stiff hairs or bristles, bent somewhat 
downwards. Branches spreading. Leaves petioled, rugged, 
serrate, sometimes entire, but most frequently jagged at the 
base, and sometimes lyrate or pinnatifid. Flowers at the end 
of the stem and branches, in a clustered corymb, each on a 
pedicle the length of the calyx, and slightly hispid. Corolla 
always yellow. Siliques spreading, slightly hairy, or some- 
times smooth, torose or swelling, ending in a short, com- 
pressed, ensiform, grooved beak. Seeds dark brown, shining, 
eight or nine, extremely pungent, and well known under the 
name of " Durham mustard." It flowers in June and July, 
but occasionally in all open weather, and forms a very trouble- 
some weed on heavy moist corn lands. The seeds are of an 
oily nature, and remain dormant in the soil for an indefinite 
time, if buried below the depth of six inches. On being- 
brought by deep ploughing near the light, the plants appear 
in such abundance as to overrun and smother any growing 
crop. They may be destroyed before seeding, and winter 
tares being cut when the flower is in blossom, will much help 
to destroy it ; and if a crop of turnips follows the tares, the 
charlock will be well-nigh destroyed. The crops being drilled, 
the blossomed plants must be pulled by hand, and carried 
from the field ; for the seeds, if only half perfected, will grow 
with much readiness. 

The classical name in English, is " Wild mustard but it 
is variously called, in provincial language, charlock, gar- 
lock, warlock, chadlock, cadlock, and kedlock. The young 
plants, and particularly the tender tops before they flower, 
are boiled, and eaten as greens by the peasants in Scandi- 
navia, Ireland, and many parts of England. 

9. The " Hedge mustard," or " Erysimum barbarea'' of 
botany, is a weed of much frequency on similar soils with the 
last, and being like it in appearance, the two plants are often 



HEDGE MUSTARD. 



15 



confounded. The plant belongs to the class and order 
" Tetradynamia siliquosa " of Linneus, and the natural order 
Cruciferse" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth four-leaved. Leaf- 
lets ovate, oblong, parallel, converging, coloured, deciduous. 
Corolla : four-petalled, cruciform ; petals oblong, flat, ex- 
tremely obtuse at the tip ; claws, length of the calyx, 
upright ; nectariferous gland, double, within the shorter 
filament. Stamina : filaments six, length of the calyx, of 
these the two opposite shorter ; anthers simple. Pistil : 
germ linear, four-cornered, length of the stamens ; style 
very short ; stigma headed, permanent, small. Perianth : 
silique long, linear, strict, exactly four-cornered, two-valved, 
two-celled. Seeds very many, small, roundish. 

Essential character. — Silique colunnar, with four equal 
sides. Calyx closed. 

The Erysimum barbarea," or the winter cr^ss or hedge 
mustard, has the leaves lyrate, the outmost lobe roundish. 
Root perennial. Stem a foot or eighteen inches high, smooth, 
round, deeply furrowed, much-branched. Leaves smooth, 
dark green, having two or three pairs of roundish lobes, con- 
nected to a broad foliaceous rib, the extreme lobe much the 
largest, and either of an oval or blunt rhomboidal figure, 
shghtly indented on the edges, but they vary much in form. 
Flowers in racemes or thick spikes at the ends of the stem and 
branches ; calyx green ; petals yellow, much longer than the 
calyx. Seeds roughish, finely dotted and reticulated, twenty 
in number, ten in each cell. 

This plant flowers in May to July. It grows in watery 
places, on banks of ditches and streams, on walls, and in cul- 
tivated fields. The leaves are used as salads, and also boiled 
as " kale." The taste is mostly bitter and unpleasant, and 
the whole plant has a nauseous, bitter, slimy flavour. The 
dark shining broad leaves distinguish it from the "mustards," 
with which it is frequently confounded ; they grow intermixed, 
the colour of the flowers is similar, and the unaccustomed 
eye mistakes the one for the other. The lower leaves are 
lyrate, with the terminal lobe rounded ; upper ones obovate, 



16 



WEEDS. 



toothed. This characteristic separates it from the "Sinapis." 
The same means of eradication apply to both plants. 

10. The " Gromwell,'* or the " Lithospermum" of botany, 
is a plant of frequent growth on soft lands on a clayey bottom, 
mostly adapted for wheat. The plant belongs to the class and 
order " Pentandria monogynia " of Linneus, and the natural 
order "Boraginese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth five-parted, oblong, 
straight, sharp, permanent; divisions awl-shaped, keeled. 
Corolla one-petalled, funnel-form, length of the calyx; tube 
cylindric ; border half five-cleft, obtuse, upright ; throat per- 
forated, naked. Stamina : filaments five, very short ; anthers 
oblong, incumbent, covered. Pistil ; germs four ; style fili- 
form, length of the stamens ; stigma obtuse, emarginate. 
Pericarp none ; calyx grown larger, upright, containing 
the seeds in its bosom. Seeds four, rather oblong, obtuse, 
gibbous. 

Essential character. — Calyx five-parted. Corolla fun- 
nel-form, perforated at the throat, naked. 

The " Corn Gromwell," or the " Lithospermum arvense," 
has the seed ovate, wrinkled ; calycine leaflets, lanceolate ; 
corollas, scarcely longer than the calyx. Leaves lanceolate, 
sharpish, hispid. Root annual, small, and not much- 
branched ; the bark abounds with a deep red dye, which 
stains paper and linen. Stem upright, a foot or more in 
height, round or slightly angular, rough, with close-pressed 
hairs, often much-branched at the top. Leaves alternate, 
lanceolate, entire, rigid, sessile, rough, with bristly hairs 
close-pressed standing out from the edge. Flowers soli- 
tary, nearly sessile, in the axils of the upper leaves. Corolla 
small and white, with five swellings round its orifice. Seeds 
brown, rugged, rather covered with hard tubercles tUan 
wrinkled ; two, three, or four, but generally three, with one 
abortive ; when there are four seeds, two are found abortive, 
and six divisions in the calyx. 

This plant flowers from May to July, and in some places 
it is pretty abundant. Being annual, the seeding only has 
to be guarded against; and the wheat crops being drilled. 



COLTSFOOT. 



17 



the blossomed plants must be pulled by hand. The seeds 
are not numerous ; and a well-executed summer fallowing; 
of the land, will do much in eradicating the tribe of 
sparingly seeded plants. 

11. The "Coltsfoot," or the "Tussilago" of botany, is a 
plant of much frequency on damp clayey loams, that are 
adapted for the green crop cultivation. It belongs to the 
class and order " Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua" of Lin- 
neus ; and the natural order " Corymbiferse " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx, common cylindrical. Scales, 
lanceolate, linear, (fifteen or twenty), equal, as long as the 
disk, submembranaceous. Corolla compound, various. 
CoroUets in some are hermaphrodite and tubular, or only 
in the disk. Females in some none, in others hgulate. 
Proper of the hermaphrodite, funnel-formed, border five- 
cleft (or four-cleft), acute, reflexed, longer than the calyx. 
Females none, or ligulate, very narrow, longer than the 
calyx, entire. Stamina : in the hermaphrodites, filaments 
five; capillary very short; anther cylindric, tubular. Pistil 
in the hermaphrodites, germ short. Style filiform, longer 
than the stamen. Stigma thickish. In the females, germ 
short ; style fihform, length of the hermaphrodite ; stigma 
bifid, thickish; pericarp none; calyx scarcely changed. 
Seeds in the hermaphrodites, solitary, oblong, compressed. 
Down capillary, stipulate. In the females, if any, Hke the 
others. Receptacle naked. 

Essential character. — Calyx, scales equal, as long as 
the disk, somewhat membranaceous. Down simple. Re- 
ceptacle naked. 

The common or field species of coltsfoot is the " Tussilago 
Farfara." Scape one-flowered, scaly-leaves, cordate, an- 
gular, toothletted. Root perennial, creeping horizontally, 
far and wide. Flowers solitary, terminating, yellow, more 
conspicuous on account of their radiate form than most of 
the other species. The flowers come up early in the spring 
before the leaves, and at some distance from them ; they are 
upright, but as soon as the bloom is past, and the seeds, with 
their down as yet moist, are inclosed within the calyx, the 

c 



18 



WEEDS. 



heads hang down ; as the moisture evaporates in ripening 
they become hghter, are again erected, and the down 
expands. 

The "coltsfoot" is often a very troublesome weed in 
moist, stiff clayey, and marley soils, that have been over- 
cropped and exhausted. The roots penetrate deeply, and 
are widely spread, and when drawn they often break, and 
sprout again very vigorously. To eradicate roots of that 
nature, deep ploughing is the surest way; and the furrow 
must be comparatively narrow, in order that the roots may 
not escape unhurt between the furrow slices. The root 
being perennial, renders attention to the eradication of that 
part of the plant equally if not more necessary, with the 
prevention of the seeds being perfected. Both duties bemg 
properly executed, the " coltsfoot" will speedily disappear, 
the presence of it being a sure mark of bad management. 

12. The " Ragwort," or the " Senecio" of botanists, is a 
very common weed in Britain, and grows in most soils 
and situations. The plant belongs to the class and order 
"Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua" of Linneus, and the 
natural order " Corymbiferse" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Common calyx, calyculate, conical, 
truncated. Scales awl-shaped, numerous, parallel and con- 
tracted into a cylinder at the upper part, contiguous, equal ; 
not so numerous at the base, but imbricated, withering at 
the tip,. Corolla compound, higher than the calyx. 
Florets of the disk perfect, tubular, numerous, funnel- 
shaped, with a five-cleft, reflexed limb ; those of the radius, 
if any, female, ligulate, oblong, shghtly three-toothed. 
Stamina : in the perfect florets, filaments five, capillary 
very small; anthers cylindrical, tubular. Pistil (in all 
the florets), germen ovate ; style thread-shaped, the length 
of the stamens ; stigmas two, oblong, revolute. Pericarp 
none, except the conical, converging calyx. Seeds in both 
kinds of florets alike, solitary, ovate, crowned with capillary 
long down. Receptacle naked, fiat. 

Essential character. — Receptacle naked. Down sim- 
ple. Calyx cyhndrical, many-leaved, equal, scaly at the 
base. Scales dead at the tip. 



GROUNDSEL. SOWTHISTLE. 



19 



The " Senecio vulgaris," or the " common groundsel," 
belongs to the first section of the genus. " Flowers without 
a radius." Scattered. Leaves situated in a pinnate form, 
toothed, embracing the stem. Root annual, fibrous. 
Stem erect, branched, leafy, somewhat panicled, round, 
angular, either smooth or clothed with a cottony down like 
the back of the foliage. Leaves alternate, bright green, 
radical ones, stalked, those of the stem sessile, auriculate. 
Flowers terminal, scattered or panicled, yellow. Seeds 
furrowed, pubescent. Seed-down sessile, rough. The 
great peculiarity in the genus " Senecio," of having the 
scales of the calyx withered, is very conspicuous in the 
present species, whose flower-buds and young-tops are the 
food of many small birds, both wild and domestic. 

The "common groundsel" flowers throughout the year, 
almost in any soil or situation. It delights most in soft 
damp situations, as compost heaps of earths, or lands of the 
above texture. The root being annual, it only remains to 
prevent the seeds being perfected, by very careful and 
repeated hoeings and scuflilings of the drilled crops. Where 
such weeds are very numerous, the best way is to cut them 
with the hoe when in full flower, and carry them ofl* the field. 

13. The " Sowthistle," or the "Sonchus" of botanists, 
sometimes grows luxuriantly among corn crops. The plant 
belongs to the class and order " Syngenesia Polygamia 
Equalis" of Linneus, and the natural order " Cichoraceae," 
of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Common calyx imbricated, bellying, 
of numerous, linear, unequal scales. Corolla compound, 
imbricated, uniform. Florets all perfect, numerous, equal, 
of one petal, hgulate, linear, .abrupt, with five teeth. 
Stamina, filaments five, capillary very short; anthers 
united into a cylindrical tube. Pistil germen nearly ovate ; 
style thread-shaped, the length of the stamens. Stigmas 
two, reflexed. Pericarp none, except the calyx, closing 
into the form of a depressed globe, with a conical point. 
Seeds soKtary, rather oblong. Down capillary, sessile. 
Receptacle naked. 

c 2 



20 



WEEDS. 



Essential character. — Receptacle naked. Calyx imbri- 
cated, swelling at the base. Seed-down simple, sessile. 

The Sonchus arvensis," or the " Corn sow-thistle/' is a 
frequent weed in damp loams. The root is creeping, fleshy 
and milky, running deep into the ground, and difficult of ex- 
tirpation. 

The Sonchus oleraceus," or the common " Sow-thistle," 
is much more frequent than the former species, and is a very 
common weed on cultivated lands. Flower stalks downy, 
imperfectly umbellate. Calyx smooth. Leaves runcinate, 
toothed. Root annual, spindle-shaped. Herbage smooth, 
brittle, milky ; very various with respect to luxuriance, and 
the number of teeth, lobes, or prickles about the edges of its 
leaves ; their segments, however, are almost always acute and 
runcinate. Flower stalks axillary and terminal, rather cymose 
than umbellate, clothed when young with soft, white, dense, 
cob-web-like deciduous down. Corolla lemon-coloured. 
Seeds angular, with crenate ribs. 

" Thistles " are easily eradicated by a careful tillage in kill- 
ing the roots, and by preventing the perfection of the seeds 
in cutting the stems when the flowers are in blossom. The 
seeds are numerous, and are easily carried about by the wind, 
and consequently no plants should be allowed to grow on the 
hedge-sides and in ditches, for lanes and road sides often pro- 
duce seeds to infest the adjoining fields. 

14. The "Spear thistle," and the " common field thistle," 
belong to the genus " Carduus," one of the most extensive 
in the vegetable kingdom. It belongs to the class and order 
" Syngenesia polygamia equalis" of Linneus, and the natural 
order " Cinarocephalse" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx common, ventricose, imbricate; 
scales very numerous, lanceolate, acuminate, spiny. Corolla 
compound, tubular, uniform. CoroUules hermaphrodite, 
subequal, reflected ; the proper one monapetalous, infundibili- 
form ; tube very slender ; border erect, ovate at the base, 
quinquefid ; divisions linear, equal, one more deeply serrated 
than the rest. Stamina : filaments five ; capillary very short; 
anthers cylindrical, tubular, length of the coroilule, five- 



SPEAR THISTLE. FIELD THISTLE. 



21 



toothed at the mouth. Pistil: germ ovate; style filiform, 
longer than the stamens ; stigma simple, subulate, naked, 
emarginate. Pericarp none ; calyx converging a little. 
Seeds solitary, obovate, four-cornered, the two opposite cor- 
ners obliterated ; down sessile, very long. Receptacle hairy, 
flat. 

Essential character. — Calyx ovate, imbricate with spiny 
scales; receptacle hairy. 

The " Spear thistle," or " Carduus lanceolatus," is some- 
times seen on corn fields, but more generally on ditch banks 
and the sides of hedges. Leaves decurrent, pinnatifid, hispid; 
divisions divaricate ; calyxes ovate, spiny, villose. Stem 
hairy. Root biennial ; stem upright, three or four feet high, 
angular, downy, and sea-green underneath ; hairy, and deep 
green above. Flowers in July. It is often called the "bur- 
thistle." The flowers have the property of curdling milk. 

The means of eradication are cutting and pulling the stem, 
and using the most diligent attention that no seeds be per- 
fected. If cut in the early season, side branches will shoot 
and perfect seeds, so that a second cutting is required ; but, 
if allowed to grow to height, one cutting will be sufiicient. 
Every plant in lanes, road-sides, ditch-banks, and in the roots 
of hedges, should be very carefully destroyed, for the seeds 
are winged with dowm, and are easily carried by the wind to 
distant places, where they aHght and grow. 

15. The " Field thistle," or " Carduus arvensis," is placed 
in the second section of the species, having the leaves " not 
decurrent." The leaves are sessile, pinnatifid, spinous-stem^ 
panicled ; calyxes egg-shaped, slightly spinous, down 
feathery. Root perennial, creeping, tapering, descending 
deep into the ground,- not easily extirpated. Stems three 
feet highj erect, round, smooth, many-flowered. Leaves 
sHghtly decurrent, alternate, smoothish; lobes unequal, ciliated, 
spinous. Flowers white ; calyx egg-shaped ; scales broad 
lanceolate, pressed close ; woolly at the edges, with a short 
spreading spine ; down deciduous ; root permanent. 

The permanent root remaining in the ground, and sending 
up flowering stems in succession, is the chief tendency to be 



22 



WEEDS. 



guarded against in the " common thistle ; the stems can be 
kept down by repeated cuttings. In order to eradicate the 
tapering and spreading, no process is so effectual as " deep 
ploughing," executed with a strength of four horses, and the 
furrow narrow in proportion to the depth, that no roots escape 
uncut between the furrow slices. This mode of deep and nar- 
row ploughing never fails in completely expelHng the thistle 
as a weed on cultivated grounds. 

16. The common Dock," or the "Rumex" of botanists, 
is a very annoying weed both in cultivated lands and on pas- 
tures, in soft damp soils. It belongs to the class and order 
" Hexandria trigynia" of Linneus, and the natural order 
" Polygonese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth, three-leaved ; leaflets 
obtuse, reflex, permanent. Corolla : petals three, ovate, bigger 
than the calyl, and, like it, converging, permanent. Stamina : 
filaments six, capillary very short ; anthers erect, twin. 
Pistil : germ turbinate, three-sided ; styles three, capillary 
reflexed, standing out between the clefts of the converging 
petals; stigmas large, laciniate. Pericarp none. Corolla 
converging, three-sided, inclosing the seed. Seed single, three- 
sided. 

Essential character. ^Cdilyx three-leaved ; petals three, 
converging. Seed one, three-sided. 

The " Rumex obtusifolius," or " Blunt-leaved dock," is the 
most common weed. Flowers hermaphrodite ; valves toothed, 
one chiefly graniferous root. Leaves cordate, blunt. Stem 
somewhat rugged. Root tapering, running deep and straight. 
Stem three feet high, upright, branched. Racemes nearly 
upright, furnished with few leaves. Flowers in half whorls, 
on capillary peduncles, sprinkled near the top with white 
shining globules, and the pedicles surrounded near the base 
by an indistinct cartilaginous ring. 

The " Rumex acetosa," or the " Common sorrel," has a 
perennial root, running deep into the earth. Stem mostly 
simple, erect, from one to two feet high. Flowers dioecous ; 
valves graniferous. Leaves oblong, sagittate. It flowers early 
in June. 



-CORNBIND. 



23 



The " Rumex acetosella," or Sheep's sorrel," is less than 
the common sorrel by half. Root creeping, perennial. 
Flowers dioecous ; valves grainless. Leaves lanceolate, 
hastate. 

The presence of any plant of the dock tribe on arable or 
pasture lands, shows a moisture which requires draining to 
carry it away, and the appearance of the sorrels indicates a 
sourness which requires the application of calcareous matters 
to remove it. And in case of all permanently rooted plants, 
deep and clear ploughings are again recommended for the 
purpose of eradicating them. 

The " Dock " ripens an abundance of seeds, which are shed 
round the parent, not having the means of being dispersed 
to any great distance. The seeds are very tenacious of life, 
and nothing but burning is a sure destruction of them. The 
roots are equally tenacious, and require to be removed from 
the field on being pulled up. The roots send forth new shoots 
from almost any depth. 

17. The " Cornbind weed," or the "Convolvulus arvensis" 
of botany, is found occasionally growing among wheat, and 
twining round the stalks of corn. The plant belongs to the 
class and order "Pentandria monogynia" of Linneus, and 
the natural order " Convolvulacese" of Jussieu. 

Generic characier. — Calyx : perianth five-cleft. Corolla : 
monopetalous, bell-shaped, or funnel-shaped, plaited ; border 
generally spreading, more or less five-lobed. Stamina : 
filaments five, awl-shaped, shorter than the corolla, approxi- 
mating at the base. Pistil : germen superior, roundish ; style 
filiform ; stigma simple or bifid. Pericarp : capsule sur- 
rounded by the calyx, roundish, one, two, three, or four-celled ; 
one, two, three, four, or many-valved. Seeds one or two 
in each cell. 

Essential character. — Calyx five-cleft. Corolla bell or 
funnel-shaped; stigmas one or two. Pericarp: a capsule or 
dry berry. Seeds one or two in each cell. 

The calyx is often called " five-leaved," when it is very 
deeply "five-cleft." 

The common field bind-weed is a native of Biitain and 



24 



WEEDS. 



most parts of Europe. Leaves arrow-shaped, lobes acute. 
Flowers generally solitary ; bractes, minute, awl-shaped, re- 
mote from the flower, Root perennial, creeping, striking 
deeply into the ground, not easily extirpated. Stems numer- 
ous, angular. Leaves alternate, petioled, smoothish. Flowers 
flesh-coloured, sometimes white, sweet-scented, opening only 
in clear weather ; peduncles axillary, generally one-flowered, 
thickened above. The juice is slightly purgative, and the 
blossoms give a deep orange or yellow tincture to water, 
which is heightened by alum and alkahs. It flowers in June 
and July. 

This weed is most common on dry gravelly soils, where it 
wanders over whole fields, twining round the stalks of the 
grain, and very much injuring the crop, especially when it 
has been laid by heavy rains. The roots run deeply and very 
widely. It brings plants to the ground, or checks their vege- 
tation, by injuring their structure. Being perennial, it must 
be rooted out by repeated ploughings done in dry weather, 
and by carefully picking ofl* the roots and burning them. 
The roots are very vivacious, and the smallest bit left in the 
ground will spring and rise to the surface. 

18. " Knot-grass," or the '^Polygonum aviculare" of botany, 
is not an uncommon weed on tillage lands. The plant be- 
longs to the class and order " Octandria triginia " of Linneus, 
and the natural order Polygonese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx: perianth inferior, of one-leaf? 
turbinate, internally coloured, in five deep ovate, obtuse, per- 
manent segments. Corolla none, unless the calyx be taken 
for such. Stamina : filaments generally eight, awl-shaped, 
very short ; anthers roundish, incumbent. Pistil : germen 
superior, triangular ; styles mostly three, thread-shaped, very 
short; stigmas simple. Pericarp none, the calyx folding- 
over the seed. Seed one, acute, with three, rarely only two 
angles. 

Efisential character. — Calyx: in five deep segments, 
coloured, petal-like, permanent. Seed one, superior, angular, 
covered by the calyx ; stamens and styles uncertain in 
number. 



KNOT-GRASS. — BLACKBIND WEED. FUMITORY. 



25 



The most common species is called " Aviculare," from the 
gratefulness of its seeds to small birds ; it grows in great 
abundance on road sides^ on sandy and gravelly soils, and 
also on cultivated fields, and covers much ground where the 
natural plants have been destroyed. The flowers are axillary ; 
styles three. Leaves elHptic, lanceolate, rough-edged. Ribs 
of the stipules remote. Stem procumbent, herbaceous. The 
crimson flowers are very numerous, and very beautiful under 
a magnifier. The root is annual, and of an astringent taste, 
and once reckoned of some medical virtue, but now wholly 
superseded. All quadrupeds are fond of the plant, and hence 
it is called knot-grass," though it bears no resemblance to 
the real grasses. 

The seeds are numerous, and the habits are traiUng, and 
the mode of extirpation consists in preventing its seeding, by 
a timely cutting of the plants. It is not among the most 
troublesome weeds. 

The " Blackbind weed," or the Polygonum convolvulus," 
is often found as a weed on cultivated fields. It is annual, 
and twines round the stems of plants to the height of three 
feet or more, with a stem roughish, angular, and somewhat 
branched. The prevention of the seeds being perfected, by 
means of a careful and constant culture, is the sure means of 
eradication. 

19. " Fumitory," or the Fumaria" of botany, is a common 
and very abundant weed on soft loams of the best quality. 
The plant belongs to the class and order Diadelphia hexan- 
dria" of Linneus, and the natural order " Papaveraceae " of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of two equal, 
small leaves, mostly deciduous, often coloured. Corolla 
tubular, ringent, of two petals, each lobed, and spreading at 
the extremity, gibbous, and holding honey at the base, 
variously formed in different species. Stamina : filaments 
six, capillary, united into two sets by their broad, elongated, 
membranous bases, sheathing the germen; anthers small, 
roundish, vertical. Pistil: germen roundish or oblong; 
style curved or oblique ; stigma obtuse. Pericarp : 



26 



WEEDS. 



pod of two valves, and one cell. Seeds one or more, 
roundish. 

Essential character. — Calyx of two leaves, inferior. 
Corolla: ringent, gibbous, and honey-bearing at the base, 
each filament bearing three anthers. 

The " Common fumitory," or the " Fumaria officinahs," 
flowers from April to August, and later, with very elegant 
pink blossoms, variegated with spots of dark red, and of 
green. Pericarps one-seeded, racemed. Stem diffuse ; it 
is annual, but not reckoned a very troublesome weed, though 
often very abundant on good soft loams. After being cut by 
the hoe in the drills, the plants should be carried off the 
field ; as in damp weather the roots again take hold, and the 
seeds are perfected after the cultivated plants are full grown, 
and the culture has ceased. This method of carrying away 
the plants, apphes to many annual plants, wdiich are gen- 
erally of a vivacious nature. 

20. The " Rest harrow," or the "Ononis" of botany, is 
sometimes met with on tillage land, where it forms a weed of 
a very troublesome nature. The plant belongs to the class 
and order " Diadelphia decandria" of Linneus, and the na- 
tuial order " Papilionacese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth five-leaved, almost 
the length of the corolla; segments linear, acuminate, 
slightly arched upwards, the lowest under the keel. Corolla : 
papihonaceous. Banner cordate, striated, depressed at the 
sides more than the other petals. Wings ovate, shorter by 
half than the banner. Keel acuminate, as long as, or longer 
than the wings. Stamina : filaments ten, connate in an en- 
tire cylinder. Antherse simple. Pistil : germ oblong, villose ; 
style simple, rising ; stigma blunt. Pericarp : legume 
rhomb-shaped, turgid, sub-villose, one-celled, two-valved, 
sessile. Seeds few^, kindney-form. 

Essential character. — - Calyx five-parted, with linear 
segments ; banner striated ; legume turgid, sessile ; fila- 
ments connate, without a fissure. 

There are thirty- eight species of this genus of plants, of 
which only one" is found in Britain, and is called the com- 



REST HARROW. — COMMON FERN. 



27 



inoii rest harrow, or Cammock, and by botanists the " Ono- 
nis arvensis." It is found on barren, sandy fields, and on 
way-sides, and flowers from June to September. The flowers 
are nearly sessile, and mostly solitary. Stem hairy. Branches 
at length spinous. Leaves generally simple, entire towards 
their base. Root perennial, woody, blackish. Stems rather 
erect, or procumbent, annual, round, woody, leafy, hairy, 
spinous when old. Leaves alternate, stalked, elliptically 
wedge-shaped, linear, roughish ; the lower ones often ter- 
nate. Stipulas very large, ovate, embracing the stem, 
toothed. Flowers axillary, sohtary, sHghtly stalked, ele- 
gantly rose-coloured. Seeds dotted with tubercles. 

Some botanists make a distinction between the " Ononis 
arvensis" and the " Ononis spinosa" as being distinct species; 
but Mons. Villars does not distinguish them, alleging that 
the spines appear with the age of the plant, and growing 
stronger as the plant grows older. This observation removes 
much useless reasoning on minute differences. 

The rest harrow has a strong creeping root, which spreads 
far in the ground. There is little danger from the seeds, and 
the safest way of eradicating the roots, is to pick them off 
the land by hand, after they have been well shaken by the 
harrows in dry weather. They may then be burned in a heap, 
or rotted with earths into a compost for top-dressing. This 
weed is not of difficult extirpation : a well-executed fallow will 
banish it for ever ; and the appearance of it in modern agri- 
culture shows that there is something wrong in the perform- 
ance. 

21. The common fern, or the " Pteris aquilina" of botanists, 
is sometimes found as a weed on corn lands. It belongs to 
the class and order Cryptogamia fihces " of Linneus, and 
the natural order " Filices" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Fructification in an uninterrupted 
marginal line. Involucre from the margin of the frond turned 
in, uninterrupted, separating on the inner side. 

The common fern or brake is the original type of the 
genus, and is the FiKx scemina" of old writers. The frond 
is in three deep divisions. Branches doubly pinnate. Leaf- 



WEEDS. 



lets crowded, lanceolate, acute; the upper ones confluent. 
The fronds are annual, origmating from a perennial, creeping, 
scaly root, and rise, according to the soil, to the height of 
two to five feet. They are rigid and harsh, colour light green, 
and spread in a handsome, partly horizontal posture, being 
regularly compounded in an almost pectinate manner. The 
fructifications are rough, tomentose, rufescent ; parallel lines 
run along the margin of the pinnules, which are rolled back 
very much, so as almost to cover the capsules when ripe. 

The " Braken," or common fern, is a hardy perennial plant, 
tenacious of growth, and striking a long tap root into the 
ground, beneath the reach of the plough, which shoots up 
vigorously when the sun becomes powerful; it prevails largely 
and strongly on some deep, dry, hazel, loamy soils. The roots 
may be drawn after soaking rain, and the land must be very 
deeply ploughed ; for, when the plant has been long estab- 
hshed, it requires much pains and attention to get quit of it. 

22. The "Horsetail," or the "Equisetum" of botany, is 
not unfrequently found as a weed on soft moist soils. It be- 
longs to the class and order " Cryptogamia Alices" of Linneus, 
and the natural order " Filices " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Fructifications disposed into a long 
ovate, oblong spike, each orbiculate, gaping at the base, with 
several valves connected by a flat shield-shaped top. 

The roots are perennial and creeping. They are leafless 
herbs, with a hollow streaked stem, either simple or branched, 
the branchlets usually disposed in whorls ; it is jointed, and 
the joints are surrounded with a toothed sheath. 

The " Corn horse tail," or the Equisetum arvense," has 
the fruit-bearing scape naked, the barren scape leafy. The 
naked flowering stems appear early in the spring, and soon 
decay ; they are the thickness of a large wheat straw, a hand's 
breadth or more in height, upright, yellowish, with from two 
to five joints, covered with membranous ribbed sheaths, divided 
at the top into numerous segments or teeth. It grows in 
corn fields of a damp nature, flowering in March, April, and 
May. The country people call it "horse-pipe and snake- 
pipe." The presence of it is supposed to indicate subter- 



MOUSE-EAR. — CORN MOUSE-EAR. 



29 



raneoiis flowing waters or springs. It is a troublesome weed, 
and difficult to extirpate. The produce of seeds being small, 
the chief attention must be directed to the destruction of the 
root, by the ploughings of the land being executed deeply 
with a narrow furrow, and with sharp irons on the plough, 
in order that the roots may not escape being cut. 

23. The ''Mouse-ear," or the "Cerastium" of botany, is 
often found infesting light soils. It has somewhat the habit 
of " chickweed," but is of a duller appearance. 

It belongs to the class and order '' Decandria Pentagynia" 
of Linneus, and the natural order " Caryophyllese" of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character, — Calyx : perianth five-leaved, leaf- 
lets ovate-lanceolate, acute, spreading, permanent. Corolla : 
petals five, bifid, obtuse, erect, expanding, length of the calyx- 
Stamina : filaments ten, filiform, shorter than the corolla, 
the alternate ones shorter; anthers roundish. Pistil: germ 
ovate; styles five, capillary erect, length of the stamens. 
Stigmas obtuse. Pericarp : capsule ovate, cylindric or glob- 
ular, obtuse, unilocular, gaping with a five-toothed tip. Seeds 
very many, roundish. 

Essential character. — Calyx five-leaved ; petals bifid ; 
capsule unilocular, gaping at the tip ; orifice toothed. 

The '' Corn mouse-ear," or the '' Cerastium arvense," has 
the root perennial, creeping. Stems four or five inches high, 
decumbent, forming thick tufts, pubescent. Leaves hnear- 
lanceolate, often densely pubescent, sometimes only ciliated 
at the base. Flowers large, white-leaflets of the calyx egg- 
shaped, obtuse, scarious at the edges ; petals heart-shaped, 
veined. Capsule cylindrical, straight, the length of the calyx- 
orifice, with ten teeth. 

This weed grows chiefly on gravelly and chalky soils. 
Nature has provided annual plants with an abundance of 
seeds, whereby to propagate their kind ; and perennial plants 
have the property of propagation chiefly in the roots ; and 
some plants are provided very largely with both qualities. In 
the eradication of perennial plants, where the roots are so 
very ready to catch hold of life, the most effectual method 



30 



WEEDS. 



is to gather by hand, and cairy the plants off the field, 
after being cut by the hoe, especially when the number is 
great, as a multitude of roots seldom fail in catching hold of 
the earth, and thus continue their existence, though the bear- 
ing of seeds has been prevented. 

24. " Melilot," or the Trefolium mehlotus" of botany, is 
a very troublesome weed in some corn-growing districts. 
Legumes naked, racemed, two-seeded, wrinkled, acute. 
Stem erect. Root annual, strong, woody. Stem upright, 
grooved, yellowish green, two feet high or more, with spread- 
ing alternate branches. 

The Melilot clovers form the first division of the genus, 
having the legumes naked, and many-seeded. 

This plant grows wild in most parts of Europe, by way- 
sides, in pastures and in corn fields. It is a very injurious corn 
weed ; flowers in June, and the seeds ripen with the corn, 
and being ground with the grain the flour of wheat gets a 
strong unpleasant taste. But it is a good pasture plant; 
horses are very fond of it ; cows, sheep and swine eat it, and 
bees delight to draw its nectary. It propagates very readily 
by the root and the seeds, and therefore a very careful fallow- 
ing of the land by the modes already recommended, becomes 
necessary for its extirpation. 

25. The " Feverfew," or the " Pyrethrum" of botany, is a 
very common weed in corn fields. The plant belongs to the 
class and order " Syngenesia polygamia superflua " of 
Linneus, and the natural order " Corymbiferse" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx hemispherical, imbricated ; the 
scales close-pressed, rather acute, membranous at the edges. 
Corolla compound, radiated. Florets of the disk perfect, 
numerous, tubular, funnel-shaped, with five spreading seg- 
ments ; those of the radius more than twelve ; female ligulate, 
elliptic, oblong, three-toothed. Stamina in the perfect florets ; 
filaments five, capillary very short ; anthers, united into a 
cylinder, hardly so long as the corolla. Pistil : germen 
in all the florets, obovate style, thread-shaped, longer than 
the stamens ; stigmas two, divaricated, abrupt. Pericarp 
none, the calyx remaining unaltered. Seeds nearly ahke in 



FEVERFEW. — CORN MARYGOLD. 



31 



all the florets, oblong, quadrangular, each crowned with an 
erect, membranous, more or less lobed border. Receptacle 
naked, dotted, convex. 

Essential character. — Receptacle naked. Seeds crowned 
with a membranous margin. Calyx hemispherical, imbri- 
cated with sharpish scales, bordered with a membrane. 

The " Corn feverfew, or scentless Mayweed," the " Pyre- 
thrum inodorum," has the leaves pinnate in many capillary 
segments. Stem branched, spreading; seed crown entire. 
Root tapering, annual. Branches somewhat corymbose, 
each terminated by a rather large flower, with long white 
rays, and a prominent yellow disk. 

This weed grows mostly on gravelly soils, and flowers in 
autumn. Cutting up the plants by the hoe in drilled crops 
will prevent the seeds being perfected ; and when perfect seed- 
ing does happen, the seeds must be very carefully separated 
from the grain by winnowing, and destroyed by burning. 

26. The Corn marigold," or the " Crysanthemum " of 
botany, is a very troublesome weed in some soils. The plant 
belongs to the class and order " Syngenesia polygamia super- 
flua" of Linneus, and the natural order " Corymbiferse" of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx common, hemispherical, im- 
bricated ; interior scales larger by degrees, innermost mem- 
branous. Corolla compound, radiated. Florets of the ray 
female, and strap-shaped of the disk ; hermaphrodite, funnel- 
shaped, spreading the length of the calyx. Stamina five, 
capillary very short, anthers forming a hollow cylinder. 
Pistil : germ egg-shaped ; style filiform, longer than the 
stamens ; stigmas two, obtuse, revolute. Seeds one to each 
floret, oblong, not crowned with a marginal rim. Receptacle 
naked, dotted, convex. 

Essential character. — Receptacle naked. Seed without 
a marginal ring. Calyx hemispherical, imbricated; scales 
dilated at the margin, membranous. 

The " Corn marigold," or the Chrysanthemum segetum," 
has the leaves embracing the stem glaucous, laciniated near 
the summit, toothed at the base. Root annual, spindle- 



32 WEEDS. 

shaped, small. Stem one or two feet high, branched, an- 
gular. Leaves oblong, variously toothed, or pinnatifid, laci- 
nated, rarely entire. Flowers large, terminal; scales of the 
calyx with a broad membranous edge ; florets of the ray in- 
versely heart-shaped, spreading. Seeds furrowed. 

The plant is annual, and flowers from June to October. It 
has many provincial names : corn marigold, yellow or golden 
corn flower, yellow bottle, huddle, or the yellow bottle in 
Norfolk ; golds, goulds, or gowls, in the midland counties ; 
goulans, or goldins, in the north of England, and gules, gools, 
guils, or yellow go wans, in Scotland, from the golden colour 
of the flowers. The seeds are very plentifully produced, 
which vegetate whenever the land is cultivated, and may be 
very easily destroyed, like other annual seedUng weeds, by 
early and complete fallowing, to bring the seeds forward, and 
then destroying the plant. The root being annual, the pro- 
duction of seeds has only to be guarded against. 

27. The "Mint," or the " mentha" of botany, is a frequent 
weed on moist soils. It belongs to the class and order 
" Didynamia gymnospermia " of Linneus, and the natural 
order " Labiatse " of Jussieu. 

"Generic character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of one leaf, 
tubular, erect, with five nearly equal teeth, permanent. 
Corolla, of one petal, erect, tubular, somewhat longer than the 
calyx ; limb in four deep, nearly equal segments, the upper- 
most only being rather the broadest, and cloven. Stamina : 
filaments four, awl-shaped, erect, distant, the two nearest ones 
longest ; anthers roundish. Pistil : germen superior, four- 
cleft; style thread-shaped, erect, longer than the corolla; 
stigma in two divaricated divisions. Pericarp none, except 
the permanent straight calyx. Seeds four, small, generally 
abortive. 

Essential character. — Calyx five-cleft, nearly equal. 
Corolla nearly equal, four-cleft, its broadest segment cloven. 
Stamens erect, distant. 

The herbage and even the flowers of mint abound with 
resinous dots, the seat of an essential oil, on which the warm 
and aromatic qualities of the plants depend. The genus is 



CORN MINT, BLUE BOTTLE. 



33 



one of the most natural possible, and well marked in habit 
and character. The herbage is generally more or less hairy. 

The "Corn mint," or the "Mentha arvensis," has the flowers 
whorled. Leaves ovate. Stem much branched, diffuse. 
Calyx bell-shaped, clothed all over with horizontal hairs. 
The stems are much branched. Leaves inclining to elliptical, 
obtuse, pale, clothed with rather rigid prominent hairs. 
Flower stalks shortish, round, generally smooth, sometimes 
furnished with a few spreading or slightly defl^xed hairs. 
Calyx shorter, more bell-shaped and more broadly toothed 
than in any of the foregoing, and essentially characterised by 
being clothed all over with horizontally spreading hairs. 
Flowers reddish lilac, externally hairy. 

This plant grows abundantly in corn fields where water 
stagnates in winter, especially on a sandy or gravelly soil. 
It is often a very troublesome weed, because of the widely 
creeping nature of the root, and its turgid fleshy shoots well 
calculated to retain life in a soil that fluctuates as to humidity. 
The roots being perennial, must be picked by hand, and 
carried from the field, each time when the land is ploughed, 
harrowed, and rolled. The roots are very tenacious of life, 
and must be carefully removed. 

28. The " Blue bottle," or the " Centaurea" of botany, is 
sometimes found as a weed on corn fields. The plant be- 
longs to the class and order " Syngenesia polygamia frus- 
tranea" of Linneus, and the natural order " Cinarocephalse" 
of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx common, imbricated, roundish 
scales variously terminated. Corolla : compound, floscular 
florets, differing in form ; those of the disk hermaphrodite, 
numerous; those of the ray fewer, loose, larger, funnel-shaped, 
constantly abortive ; tube of the hermaphrodite florets filiform 
border, bellying, oblong, erect, terminated by five linear erect 
segments ; tube of the abortive florets slender, gradually en- 
larging, recurved ; border oblong, oblique, unequally divided. 
Stamens of the hermaphrodite florets : filaments five, capil- 
lary very short ; anthers united into a hollow cylinder the 
length of the petal; of the abortive florets, none. Pistil 



34 



WEEDS. 



of the former : germ small ; style filiform, the length of the 
stamens ; stigma very obtuse, projecting in a point, in many 
species bifid ; of the latter, germ very small ; style scarcely 
any; stigmas none. Seeds of the fertile florets solitary; 
down in most species feathered or capillary; receptacle 
bristly. 

Essential character. — Receptacle bristly. Florets of the 
ray funnel-shaped, longer, abortive. 

The "Corn centaury" has a stem one to two feet high, 
erect, much branched, somewhat woolly ; calyxes serrate, 
leaves linear, quite entire, the lowest toothed. Root annual, 
fibrous, black. Leaves hnear-lanceolate, acuminate, some- 
what woolly ; root leaves entire ; lower stem leaves often 
pinnatifid or toothed ; upper ones always entire. Flowers 
terminal, sohtary, peduncled; florets of the disk purplish, 
regular ; anthers black ; florets of the ray funnel-shaped — 
always blue when wild ; calyx egg-shaped ; scales lanceo- 
late. Seeds even-down, many-leaved, unequal, scabrous 
reddish. It flowers from June to September, and is easily 
extirpated by constant hoeing to prevent the perfecting of 
seeds ; and the root being annual, there is no dread of pro- 
pagation in that way. The oldest writers notice this plant, 
and it has been mentioned under various names. 

29. The corn Chamomile, or stinking May weed, is a com- 
mon plant on corn fields. It is the " Anthemis" of botany, 
and belongs to the class and order " Syngenesia polygamia 
Superflua" of Linneus, and the natural order " Corymbiferae " 
of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx common, hemispherical; scales 
linear, subequal. Corolla compound, radiate ; corollules 
hermaphrodite, tubular, numerous in a convex disk ; females 
more than five in the ray. Proper of the hermaphrodite fun- 
nel-shaped, five-toothed, erect; of the female ligulate, lanceo- 
late, sometimes three-toothed. Stamina in the hermaphro- 
dite : filaments five, capillary very short ; antherss cylindri- 
cal, tubular. Pistil in the hermaphrodites : germ oblong ; 
style filiform, the length of the stamens; stigmas two, reflex; 
in the females germ oblong : style filiform, the length of the 



CORN^ CHAMOMILE. OAT-LTKE SOFT GRAS8. 



35 



hermaprodites ; stiomas two, revolute. Pericarp none ; calyx 
unchanged. Seeds solitary, oblong, down-margined or 
none. Receptacle chaffy, convex or conical. 

Essential character. — Receptaculum chaffy ; down none ; 
calyx hemispherical, nearly equal ; floscules of the ray more 
than five. 

The " Corn chamomile," or the " Anthemis arvensis," has 
the receptacles conic; chaffs bristle- shaped ; seeds crown- 
margined; leaves thinly downed. Root biennial. Flowers 
in June and July. As this plant produces abundance of 
seeds, and the root is biennial or existing for two years, the 
extirpation of it requires a double care in gathering the roots 
by hand-picking of the fallowed lands, and to prevent the per- 
fecting of the seed by cutting and pulling the plant during its 
growth. 

30. The " Oat-like soft grass," or the " Holcus avenaceus" 
of botany, is a most troublesome weed on the best arable 
lands. The plant belongs to the class and order " Triandria 
digynia" of Linneus, and the natural order " Gramineee" of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : glume of two valves ; erect, 
beardless, ovate, containing two florets, one of them elevated 
on a stalk. Corolla of two valves, the lower or outer one 
largest, awned at the back in the least perfect floret ; nectary 
a cloven membranous scale. Stamina : filaments three in each 
floret; capillary rather short; anthers long, linear, cloven 
at each end. Pistil: germen ovate; styles two, capillary, 
diverging ; stigmas oblong, feathery. One floret has either 
no pistil, or only an imperfect one. Pericarp none, except 
the permanent glumes. Seed solitary, ovate, attached to the 
hardened corolla. 

Essential character. — Calyx of two valves, two-flowered ; 
one floret with an imperfect germen. Corolla of two valves ; 
the outer one awned. 

The species "Avenaceus" has the calyx glumes unequal, 
smooth ; male floret lowest, with a bent awn. Root knotty, 
perennial. Stems a yard high. Leaves darkish green, rough, 
and rather harsh. Stipula short, abrupt, minutely toothed, 

D 2 



36 



WEEDS. 



Fanicle half-whorled, the branches consequently leaning one 
way. Flowers scariose, shimng, not downy ; anthers purple, 
pendulous. The male floret has the rudiments of a germen, 
and is always conspicuously awned ; the other is but slightly 
elevated. When the land is rich, this plant grows luxuriantly, 
and acquires more joints and bulbs, and has been called 
" Holcus bulbosus," though only a variety of the plant now 
described. 

This, grass flowers in June and July, and forms a large part 
of the weeds which pass under the general denomination of 
^' couch" and " quickens." No weed is more troublesome to 
the farmer on the better turnip soils, and on the more loamy 
clay fallows. The root is perennial, and composed of knobs 
or bulbs that are joined together at distances by intervening 
threads, and from each bulb shoots proceed, which circum- 
stance renders the extirpation of the weed to be very difficult 
and tedious. Repeated ploughings and harrowings of the 
land become necessary, and then a very careful hand-picking 
of the roots of the plant after they have been well shaken into 
view by the action of the implements. On stiffish soils which 
hold the weed tightly in their texture, the sharp irons of the 
plough are very apt to cut the fibres into small pieces, which 
very much increase the difficulty of getting the land cleared 
of the weed. Accordingly on all lands whose degree of mel- 
lowness admits the action of a grubbing scarifier, the round 
tires of that implement tear out and pull to the surface the 
roots and fibres of the plant, without cutting or breaking 
them, and at the same time the ground is very superiorly 
pulverised. The roots are very tenacious of life, and no de- 
gree of arid exposure will destroy the vital principle. De- 
composition in a heap along with other earthy matters, re- 
quires to be very minutely inspected at each turning over of 
the heap ; for some roots are very apt to escape on the out- 
side of the compost, and which being carried to the land, 
will immediately grow, and multiply very fast. Even the 
burning of the roots in heaps on the field is not thoroughly 
safe : for the outside may escape ignition, and grow as before. 
The most effectual method is to carry the roots off* the field 



WHEAT GRASS. 



37 



at once, and to lay them in some waste corner, where they 
may be burned at leisure, or mixed and prepared in compost 
by a lengthened inspection. 

31. The " Wheat grass," or the " Triticum " of botany, is a 
most pernicious weed. The plant belongs to the class and 
order " Triandria digynia" of Linneus, and the natural order 
" Gramineae " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx, a common receptacle elongated 
into a spike ; glume two-valved, sub-triflorous valves ; ovate, 
bluntish, concave. Corolla two-valved, nearly equal, size of 
the calyx ; exterior valve ventricose, blunt with a point ; in- 
terior valve flat. Nectary two-leaved ; leaflets acute, gibbous 
at the base. Stamina: filaments three, capillary; anthers 
oblong, forked. Pistil : germ turbinate ; styles two, capil- 
lary reflexed; stigmas feathered. Pericarp none. Corolla 
fosters the seed, opens and drops it. Seed one, ovate oblong, 
blunt at both ends, convex on one side, grooved on the 
other. 

Essential character, — Calyx two-valved, solitary, sub- 
triflorous, or many-flowered, on a flexuose toothed rachis. 
Corolla blunt, with a point. 

This genus comprehends all the varieties of the cultivated 
wheats, and the annual and permanent wheat grasses. The 
species we now mention as a weed, is the " Triticum repens " 
of botany, or the creeping wheat grass, and known by differ- 
ent names, as quick, quitch, twitch, couch, or dogs' grass, are 
evidently derived from quick, which signifies "living," in 
allusion to the very vivacious nature of the root. Calyx awl- 
shaped, many-ribbed, five-flowered. Florets pointed. Leaves 
flat. Root creeping. Flowers in summer and autumn. 

The roots have been dried and ground into meal, and made 
into bread in years of scarcity. The taste of the dried roots is 
sweet, and they are sold as food for horses ; cows, sheep, and 
goats also eat them. Dogs eat the leaves to excite vomiting. 
The stems are two feet high, slender. Herbage green. 

The long and deeply creeping roots are of all weeds the 
most difficult to extirpate. The root is regularly jointed, and 
from each joint the shoots proceed, which throw up the 



38 



WEEDS. 



flowering stems. The recommendation oiven in the former 
weed, is now repeated, that the land be repeatedly grubbed 
and scarified in contrary and cross directions, in order to 
drag the weeds " entire " to the surface, and then to be carted 
oif the field, in order to be burned or decomposed in an 
earthy mass. The roots are vivacious beyond any example, 
and require the most minute care that every twig of them, 
however small, be most carefully picked off the land, and 
removed. 

The roots of the common grasses become weeds on arable 
lands, and farmers designate them all by the common name 
of quickens " and " couch grass." Next to the two grass 
weeds now mentioned, the roots of the "Agrostis" family 
form the weed of the greatest abundance on damp loams, 
where they grow very vigorously. The roots are black in 
colour, fibrous and creeping, and throw oat shoots from the 
joints, and are very tenacious of life. They are most gener- 
ally called " bent grass." 

32. The Wild oat, or haver," or the " Avena fataa " of 
botany, is not uncommon as a weed on badly cultivated lands. 
Being perennial, and having a creeping root, it can only be 
reduced and banished by very careful fallowing of the land, 
and by picking off every root. And all root plants, or those 
that are propagated chiefly by the roots, are only to be eradi- 
cated by that process. 

It may be laid down as a general rule, that in the case of 
annual weeds which produce a great profusion of seeds, the 
chief care is to be directed to prevent the perfecting of them, 
by cutting and pulHng the plants when considerably grown in 
size, and even to remove them from the field altogether, as the 
roots are so very apt to catch hold of the earth, and grow 
again, and even perfect the seeds, so fai' as to render them 
capable of germination. And in the case of perennial plants, 
which are propagated chiefly by the roots, the most diligent 
and minute care must be used, to pick by hand and carry 
from the field every inch of roots of any kind, after they 
have been separated from the earth by the repeated use of the 
implements that have been recommended. 



COTTON GRASS. 



39 



Sect. II. — Weeds on Meadow and Pasture Lands. 

1. The "Cotton grass, harestail, or moss cups," or the 
" Eriophorum " of botany, grows in bogs or boggy meadows. 
The plant belongs to the class and order " Triandria mono- 
gynia" of Linneus, and the natm^al order Cyperoidese " of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Spike, or rather catkin, imbricated 
every way; scales ovate, oblong, flat, shghtly inflexed, 
pointed, membranous, loose, separating the flowers. Corolla 
none. Stamina : filaments three, capillary ; anthers erect, 
oblong. Pistil : germen superior, very small ; style thread- 
shaped, the length of the calyx scale; stigmas, three 
longer than the style, reflexed. Pericarp none. Seed trian- 
gular, pointed, surrounded at the base with numerous hairs 
longer than the spike. 

Essential character. — Glumes chafly, imbricated everyway. 
Corolla none. Seed one, invested with very long hairs. 

The " Eriophorum vaginatum," the mountain or single- 
spiked cotton grass, has the culms sheathed, spike scariose. 
Root leaves obscurely three-cornered, sharp, streaked on two 
sides, convex on one side, flat on two sides. Flowers in 
April and May. Sheep are very fond of it. Ray calls it 
" Hare's tail rush ;" and in Westmoreland it is called ^' moss 
crops." It is a native of bogs or boggy pastures, in cold 
barren situations. The " Eriophorum augustifolium," cr the 
" Narrow-leaved cotton grass," is very similar to this plant, 
and is often confounded with it. They grow in the same 
situations, and produce nearly similar flowers at the same 
time. 

The presence of this plant as a weed is a certain indication 
that drainage has been neglected, and that it is of course 
necessary to be attended to and practised, in order to restore 
the meadow to the proper state for the growth of good herb- 
age. Top-dressings with well-prepared composts must be 
applied at the same time. 



40 



WEEDS.: HOG WEED. 



2. The " Hog weed, or cows' parsnip," or the Heracleum " 
of botany, is a weed very often found on loamy damp meadows. 
The plant belongs to the class and order Pentandria 
digynia " of Linneus, and the natural order ^' Umbelliferse " 
of Jussieu. 

Generic charade?'. — General umbel of many rays, very 
large, partial, flat. General involucre of many leaves, de- 
ciduous, partial, halved on the outside; its leaflets from 
three to seven linear, lanceolate, the outer ones longest. 
Perianth scarcely discernible. Corolla universal, not uni- 
form, radiated. Flowers for the most part all fertile, partial ; 
of the disk equal, of five, inflexed, hooked, emarginated 
petals ; of the radius unequal, of five oblong, hooked petals ; 
the outer ones largest, and most deeply cloven. Stamina : 
filaments five, longer than the petals of the disk; anthers 
small. Pistil : germen inferior, nearly ovate ; styles two, 
approximated, short ; stigmas simple. Pericarp: fruit elhp- 
tical, compressed, emarginate, striated on each side in the 
middle. Seeds two, ovate, compressed, somewhat leafy at 
the edge. 

Essential character. — Fruit elliptical, notched, compressed, 
striated, dilated in the margin. Flowers radiant. Petals 
notched, with an inflexed point. General involucre de- 
ciduous. 

The " Heracleum sphondylium," or the Common cows' 
parsnip," has the leaves pinnate or ternate, hairy, downy, 
and whitish beneath. Leaflets dilated, pinnatifid, cut, 
and serrated, heart-shaped at its base. The root is 
biennial, tap-shaped, whitish. Stem erect, branched, leafy, 
stout, hollow, furrowed and rough, about four feet high. 
Dr. Sibthorp found it in Greece, growing in wet places, as 
mentioned by Dioscorides. It is a native of most parts of 
Europe, and forms a genus of the most gigantic umbellifer- 
ous plants. It flowers from May to July. The leaves are a 
favourite food with rabbits and swine ; kine, goats, and sheep 
also eat them ; but horses are not fond of them. 

This weed may be gradually weakened and ultimately de- 
stroyed by annuaUy cutting it in its early growth. The tap 



WILD CICELY. 



41 



roots may be split and destroyed by pushing salt down the 
incisions. 

3. The " Wild cicely, or wild chervil, cow weed," or the 
" Chserophyllum " of botany, is a common weed in orchards 
and pastm^es. The plant belongs to the class and order 
" Pentandria digynia" of Linneus, and to the natural order 
" UmbeUiferse " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx, umbel universal, spreading, 
partial, nearly equal in the number of its rays. Involucre 
universal, generally none, partial, five-leaved, or more- 
Leaflets lanceolate, concave, reflexed, about the length of the 
partial umbel. Perianth proper, scarcely discernible. Corolla 
universal, nearly uniform. Florets of the disk often abortive. 
Proper petals five, inflexed, heart-shaped, with an inflexed 
point, flattish, outer ones a little larger. Stamina : filaments 
five, simple, the length of the little umbel ; anthers roundish. 
Pistil : germen inferior ; styles two, reflexed ; stigmas ob- 
tuse. Pericarp none. Fruit oblong, acuminate, even, divisi- 
ble into two. Seeds two, oblong, attenuated upwards, con- 
vex on one side, flat on the other. 

Essential character. — Involucre reflexed, concave. Petals 
inflexed, heart-shaped. Fruit oblong, even. 

The Chserophyllum sylvestre," or the " Smooth cow 
parsley," has the stem striated, sHghtly swelling below the 
joints. Root perennial, spindle-shaped, slightly milky, but 
little branched. Stem about three feet high, erect, branched, 
leafy, round, downy towards the bottom, almost always void 
of pubescence above. Leaves triply pinnated, deeply cut, 
rough at the edge ; petioles short, dilated, ribbed. Flowers 
whitish ; umbels erect, terminal. Leaves of the partial in- 
volucre egg-shaped, membranous, fringed with thick-set 
white hairs,' petals more or less emarginate, rarely entire. 
Fruit oblong, somewhat elliptical, roundish, very slightly 
striated, quite smooth. Flowers in April and May, and grows 
very common in meadows and pastures in most parts of 
Europe, and always indicates a luxuriant soil. Grazing 
animals are indifferently fond of eating it. It flowers and 
ripens the seeds before any of the proper grasses. 



42 



WEEDS. — RUSH PLANT. 



This weed may be weakened and destroyed by the same 
means as recommended in the case of the last-mentioned 
plant. 

4. The ^^Rusli " plant, or the " Jmicus" of botany, are not 
unfrequently found as weeds in meadows and pastures. The 
plant belongs to the class and order " Hexandria monogynia" 
of Linneus, and the natui'al order " Junci or Junceae " of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Perianth, of six oblong, pointed, per- 
manent leaves, inferior. Corolla none. Stamina : filaments 
six (in the common rush, only three) ; capillary very short ; 
anthers oblong, erect, the length of the perianth. Pistil : 
germen superior, pointed^ triangular ; style short, thread- 
shaped ; stigmas three, long, thread-shaped, downy, inflexed* 
Pericarp : capsule invested v/ith the calyx, tringular, of three 
more or less completely divided cells, with three valves, 
the partitions from their centre. Seeds various in number, rarely 
solitary, roundish. 

Essential character. — Calyx of six leaves, permanent. 
Corolla none. Capsule superior, of three valves, with one or 
three cells. Seeds several ; stigmas three. 

The Common rush," or " Juncus congiomeratus," is 
triandrous, and belongs to the first section, or plants that 
have a leafless stem, the culm being naked and stiff, and the 
head lateral. Root perennial, horizontal, close, covered with 
ovate scales ; fibres filiform, very long. Culms from one to 
two feet in height, upright, round, smooth ; sheaths at the 
base, striated, blunt, leafless, awned, the uppermost three 
times as long as the rest. Root leaves few, very like the 
culms. Head of flowers roundish, solitary, seldom two to- 
gether, from the fissure of the culm bursting out below the top. 

The rush plants grow on soils varying from the poorest 
gravelly clays, to the best and deepest loams, and always in- 
dicatino' an excess of moisture. Drainino" of the land is the 
first step in remedy, and to be assisted by top-dressings of 
ashes, and other earthy matters. The roots may also be dug 
up by the spade, and reversed in the pit, when they generally 
die, and give place to better herbage. 



TANSEY. — YELLOW RATTLE. 



43 



5. " Taiisey," or the " Tanacetum " of botany, is sometimes 
found as a weed on very good meadows. The plant belongs 
to the class and order *'Syngenesia polygamia su])erflua" of 
Linneus, and the natural order " Corymbiferae " of Jussieu. 

Generic characier. — Calyx common, hemispherical, imbri- 
cate; scales acute, compact. Corolla compound, tubular, 
convex. Corollets hermaphrodite, numerous, tubular in the 
disk ; females, some in the ray. Proper of the hermaphro- 
dite : funnel-form, with a five-cleft reflexed border ; female, 
trifid, more deeply divided inwardly. Stamina in the herma- 
phrodites : filaments five, capillary very short ; anthers cylin- 
clric, tubular. Pistil in the hermaphrodites : germ oblong, 
small ; style filiform, length of the stamens ; stigma bifid, re- 
volute. In the females, germ oblong ; style simple ; stigmas 
two, reflexed. Pericarp none. Calyx unchanged. Seeds 
solitary, oblong. Down slightly margined. Receptacle 
naked. 

E.ssential character. — Calyx imbricate, hemispherical. 
Corolla ; rays obsolete, trifid (sometimes none, and all the 
florets hermaphrodite). Down submarginate. Receptacle 
naked. 

The " Common tansey," or the " Tanacetum vulgare," has 
the leaves bipinnatifid, sharply serrated, naked. The root is 
fibrous and creeping, and spreads to a great distance. It is 
bitter, and has a strong aromatic smell. Stems upright, from 
two to four feet high. Flowers from June to August, and 
compose a large, flattish, terminal, golden corymbus. 

This weed is a native of most parts of Europe, and grows 
mostly on the banks of rivers, and low places that are mode- 
rately swampy. As it propagates chiefly by the roots, they 
must be dug up by the spade, or the weeding " spit or 
tongs." 

6. The " Yellow rattle," or the " Rhinanthus" of botany, 
is a very common weed on moist meadows. The plant be- 
longs to the class and order " Didynamia angiospermia " of 
Linneus, and the natural order ^' Pediculares " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of one leaf, 
roundish, inflated, compressed, four-cleft, permanent. Corolla 



44 



WEEDS. 



of one petal, ringent tube, rather cylindrical, the length of 
the calyx ; limb gaping, compressed at the base ; upper lip 
helmet-shaped, compressed, emarginate, narrower ; lower, 
spreading, flat, trifid half-way down, obtuse, the middle seg- 
ment broader. Stamina : filaments four, the length of the 
uppei' lip, the two shorter ones concealed under it ; anthers 
incumbent, cloven on one side, hairy. Pistil : germen 
superior, ovate, compressed ; style thread-shaped, longer than 
the stamens, but standing between them ; stigma obtuse, in- 
flexed. Pericarp : capsule obtuse, erect, compressed, of 
two cells, and two valves, gaping at the margins : partition 
contrary. Seeds numerous, compressed. 

Essential character. — Calyx inflated, compressed, four- 
toothed. Upper lip of the corolla compressed. Capsule of 
two cells, blunt, compressed. Seeds imbricated, flat. 

The " Cock's comb yellow rattle," or the Rhinanthus crista 
galli,^' has the root annual, small, with small fibres. The 
whole plant is smooth. Stem a foot or more in height, four- 
cornered, mostly stained with dark purple. Leaves in pairs, 
spike, terminating leafy. Bractes like the leaves, only broader 
at the base, and more deeply cut in. Flowers not always 
strictly opposite, on short peduncles. Calyx remarkably 
large, inflated, of a pale greenish yellow colour, with strong- 
ribs, and a network of veins. Corolla twice as long as the 
calyx ; yellow, except the tube, which is white, and the an- 
terior edge of the upper lip, which is dirty blue ; anthers awn- 
less, but very hairy ; germs smooth, surrounded at the base 
by membranaceous nectary. Capsule rounded, emarginate 
at top, two-celled, two-valved. Seeds from eight to twelve in 
each cell, kidney-shaped. It flowers early in J une. 

This plant gets the name of " Yellow rattle," from the rat- 
thng of the ripe seeds in the capsule ; and for the same rea- 
son it is called "rattle boxes" in Ireland. It is sometimes 
called " penny-grass," and in Yorkshire " hen-penny," from 
the shape and size of the seed vessel, like a silver penny. 
The name of " cock's comb" is derived from the appearance 
of the upper leaves or bractes which accompany the flowers. 
Havmg no quality to recommend it for grazing, it should be 



YARROW AND SNEEZE WORT. 



45 



carefully extirpated, by the meadow being grazed for three 
or four years to prevent the seeding:, and by cutting with the 
scythe any plants that may escape the bite of the grazing 
animals, and shoot up the seed stems. The root is annual, 
or at most biennial. 

7. " Yarrow and sneeze wort," or the " Achillese" of botany, 
are common plants on some dry warm pastures. The plant 
belongs to the class and order " Syngenesia polygamia super- 
flua," of Linneus, and the natural order " Corymbiferse" of 
Jussieu. 

Generic character, — Calyx common ovate, imbricate; 
scales ovate, acute, converging. Corolla compound, radiate ; 
coroUets hermaphrodite, tubular in the disk. Females hgu- 
late, five to ten in the ray. Proper of the hermaphrodite, 
funnel-shaped, five-cleft, spreading. Female obcordate, 
spreading, trifid ; the middle cleft less than the others. Sta- 
mina in the hermaphrodites : filaments five, capillary very 
short ; antheree cylindrical, tubular. Pistil in the her- 
maphrodites : germ small ; style filiform, the length of the 
stamens ; stigma obtuse, emarginate. In the females germ 
small ; style fihform, the same lenp th as in the others ; stig- 
mas two, obtuse, reflex. Pericarp none. Calyx scarcely 
changed ; receptacle filiform, elongate as the disk of the seeds; 
ovate twice the length of the calyx. Seeds sohtary, ovate, 
furnished with flocks ; but having no down. Kecepta- 
cle chaffy, elevated-chaffs, lanceolate the length of the 
florets. 

Essential character. — Calyx ovate, imbricate ; florets of 
the ray about four ; down none. Receptacle chaffy. 

Most of the plants of this genus are hardy, herbaceous, 
fibrous-rooted perennials, with the flowers commonly in 
corymbs at the ends of the stalk and branches ; the ray in 
some yellow, in others white, in a few purple ; the leaves in 
many of the species are pinnate, bipinnate, or superdecom- 
pound ; in a few they are simple. Only two species are na- 
tives of Britain, the " Achillea millefolium," the common yar- 
row, and the ^'Achillea Ptarmica," or sneeze wort. The 
former has the leaves bipinnate, naked ; divisions linear, 
toothed. Stems furrowed towards the top. It flowers from 



46 



WEEDS. — 



PILEWORT. 



, — CUD WEED. 



June to September, and grows abundantly in pastures and 
on road-sides. The medicinal qualities are yet allowed, and 
probably the plant may be regarded rather useful as a 
medicine than noxious as food. The root being perennial 
and creeping, the only method of extirpation is to raise the 
roots by hand-labour with the three-pronged fork. 

The "Achillea ptarmica" flowers in July and August, and 
a double variety of it forms the "bachelors' buttons." It 
grows very commonly in meadows, by the sides of ditches, 
in moist woods, and shady places. To eradicate it, the roots 
must be raised with forks by hand-labour. 

8. The " Pilewort," or the " Ficaria" of botany, abounds 
as a weed in shady moist grounds. It is easily known by its 
tuberous roots. Leaves cordate, shining. Stems many, leafy, 
red at bottom, four inches long. Flowers upright. Seeds 
sub-ovate. 

The "pilewort" often occupies much room, and chokes 
other plants which grow near it, and not being eaten by cattle, 
it should be extirpated. Coal and wood ashes are very effec- 
tual in destroying it. The general effect of top-dressings is 
to kill succulent plants, and encourage the fibrous and gra- 
mineous. 

9. The "Cud weed," or the "GnaphaHum" of botany, is 
sometimes seen on pastures where the sown grasses have 
missed. The plant belongs to the class and order " Synge- 
nesia polygamia superflua" of Linneus, and the natural order 
" Corymbiferse " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Common calyx imbricated, rounded ; 
scales numerous, the marginal ones rounded; scariose coloured. 
Corolla : compound-florets of the disk tubular, funnel-shaped, 
in five equal reflexed marginal segments ; some female ones 
without a corolla, are often intermixed towards the margin. 
Stamina (in the perfect florets) : filaments five, very short 
capillary ; anthers forming a cylinder. Pistil (in the same 
florets) : germen ovate ; style thread-shaped, the length of 
the stamens; stigma cloven. In the female ones the 
same. Pericarp none, except the permanent shining calyx. 
Seeds in both kinds of florets alike, solitary, oblong, small, 
crowned with capillary or feathery down. Receptacle naked. 



MARSH MARYGOLD. NETTLE. 



47 



Essential character. — Receptacle naked. Down capillary 
or feathery. Calyx imbricated, its inner scales rounded, 
scariose coloured. 

This weed is not very abundant, and is extirpated without 
very much difficulty by cutting the stems below ground with 
a narrow spade that is made for the purpose of cutting large 
roots. 

10. The "Marsh marygold," or the " Caltha palustris" of 
botany, often occupies much space on damp meadows. The 
plant belongs to the class and order "Polyandria polygynia" 
of Linneus, and the natural order ^' Ranunculacese " of 
Jussieu, 

Generic character. — Calyx none. Corolla : petals five, 
ovate, flat, spreading, deciduous, large. Stamina : filaments 
numerous, filiform shorter than the corolla ; anthers com- 
pressed, obtuse, erect. Pistil : germ superior, five to ten, 
oblong, compressed, erect ; styles none ; stigmas simple. 
Pericarp : capsules as many, short, acuminate, spreading, 
one-celled, two-keeled, gaping in the superior suture. Seeds 
many, ovate or ovate-oblong, smooth, affixed to a superior 
suture in a double row. 

Essential character. — Calyx none ; petals five ; nectary 
none; capsule several, many-seeded. 

There is only one species of the genus, or the " Caltha 
palustris," called marsh marygold, or meadow-bowts, or 
water blobs. The root is perennial. Stems several, almost 
upright; about a foot high, hollow, nearly round, smooth, 
branched, purple at bottom. Radical leaves on long petioles, 
cordate ; reniform, smooth, shining, and notched or crenated ; 
sometimes scalloped, sometimes entire. Stem-leaves nearly 
sessile, more pointed at top, and sharply crenated. Stipules 
brown, membranous, and withering. Branches dichotomous. 
Peduncles" one-flowered, upright, grooved. Seeds beautiful, 
at bottom of an olive, and at top of a reddish, colour. It 
flowers in March and April and so early as February. The 
plant is disagreeable to grazing animals, and should be rooted 
out by the means recommended for the last weed. 

11. The " Nettle," or the Urtica" of botany, often grows 



48 



WEEDS. NETTLE, DANDELION. 



in tufts on good pasture grounds. The plant belongs to the 
class and order "Monoecia tetrandria" of Linneus, and the 
natural order " Urticse" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Male calyx : perianth of four 
roundish, concave, obtuse leaves. Corolla : petals none ; 
nectary ; the rudiments of a germen central, small, pitcher- 
shaped, undivided, tapering at the base. Stamina : filaments 
four, awl-shaped, spreading, the length of the calyx, and op- 
posite to its leaves ; anthers of two globular cells. Female 
generally on the same plant. Calyx : perianth of two, 
ovate, concave, erect, permanent valves. Corolla none. Pis- 
til : germen superior, ovate ; style none ; stigma downy. Peri- 
carp none, except the closed calyx. Seed solitary, ovate, 
compressed, blunt-edged, pohshed. 

Essential character. — Male calyx of four leaves. Corolla 
none. R^udiment of a germen cup-shaped. 

Female calyx of two leaves. Corolla none. Seed one, 
superior, polished. 

The " Common stinging nettle," or the " Urtica dioica," 
has the leaves opposite, heart-shaped, sharply serrated. Sti- 
pulas ovate, distinct, spreading. Clusters much branched, 
in pairs ; longer than the foot stalks, mostly dioicous. The 
root is perennial, and extensively creeping. The stems are 
two to three feet in height. Every part is armed with stings. 

Where nettles grow in pastures, the roots must be very care- 
fully raised by spade or fork and burned. The weed is not 
difficult of eradication, and the jDresence of it shows the most 
careless neglect. 

12. The Dandelion," or the ^" Leontodon" of botany, is 
a disagreeable plant, though common on good lands in most 
districts. The plant belongs to the class and order " Synge- 
nesia polygamia ^qualis" of Linneus, and the natural order 
" Cichoraceae" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Common calyx imbricated, oblong ; 
its interior scales linear, parallel, equal ; outer scales fewer 
in number, often reflected at the base. Corolla compound, 
imbricated, uniform; the florets hermaphrodite, numerous, 
equal, each of one petal, ligalate, linear, abrupt, with five 



COMMON DANDELION. GARLICK. 



49 



teeth. Stamina: filaments five, capillary very short ; anthers 
miited into a cylindrical tube. Pistil : germen nearly ovate ; 
style thread-shaped, as long as the florets; stigmas two, re- 
volute. Pericarp none, except the oblong, straight, at length 
reflexed, calyx. Seeds solitary, oblong, rough ; down capil- 
lary, stipitate. Receptacle naked, dotted. 

Essential character, — Receptacle naked; calyx dotted, 
imbricated with rather lax scales. Down stalked, hairy. 

The " Common dandelion," or the " Leontodon taraxacum," 
has the outer scales of the calyx reflexed. Leaves lion- 
toothed, smooth. Flowers fi'om April to July. The root is 
deep and perennial, and very branching. Leaves radical, 
runcinate, toothed, of a bright green colour, smooth. Flower 
stalks simple, longer than the leaves, hollow, brittle, milky, 
and single-flowered. Flower terminal, large, golden-coloured, 
closing in the evening ; styles hairy ; seeds obovate, furrowed, 
bearing on a long footstalk a tuft of simple radiated down. 
The whole herb is milky and bitter. 

The dandelion is a troublesome though handsome weed. 
Goats eat it ; swine devour it greedily ; sheep and kine are 
not fond of it ; horses refuse it ; small birds are fond of the 
seeds. The young leaves are used in salads, and the plant 
is diuretic in quality. Hence it may be useful in pastures. 
It is coarse, but good in hay with grasses. The eradica- 
tion may be effected as in the case of the last two men- 
tioned weeds. 

13, " Garlick," or the "Allium" of botany, is frequently 
found as a weed on very good pastures. The plant belongs 
to the class and order " Hexandria monogynia" of Linneus, 
and the natural order " Asphodelese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : spathe common, roundish, 
withering, many-flowered. Corolla : petals six, oblong. 
Stamina : filaments six, subulate, often the length of the 
corolla ; antherse oblong, upright. Pistil : germ superior, 
short, bluntly three-cornered, the corners marked with a 
line ; style simple ; stigmas short. Pericarp : capsule very 
short, broad, three-lobed, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds 
few, roundish. 

E 



50 



WEEDS. 



Essential character. — Corolla six-parted, spreading ; spathe 
many-flowered, umbel heaped ; capsule superior. 

The " Great round-headed common garlic," or the " Allium 
ampeloprasum," flowers in July and August. Umbel globose ; 
stamens three-cusped ; petals with rough keel. Stem one 
foot or more in height, having leaves at the bottom, glaucous 
and succulent ; the spathe is conical, one-leaved, and de- 
ciduous. It flowers in a close ball or peduncles, which are 
about one inch in length. It is perennial, and communicates 
its flavour to the milk and butter of cows that eat it. It is 
not " singly" liked by any animal, but is eaten in mixture 
with other grasses. 

The most effectual means of eradication , is by raising the 
roots by a spade or fork, and destroying them. 

14. " Lousewort," or the " Pedicularis" of botany, is a very 
frequent weed on moist meadows and pastures. The plant is 
very beautiful, and belongs to the class and order " Didyna- 
mia angiospermia " of Linneus, and the natural order " Pedi- 
culares" of Jussieu. 

Generic characters. — Calyx : perianth one-leafed, roundish, 
ventricose, with a five-cleft equal mouth, permanent. Corolla 
one-petalled, ringent; tube oblong, gibbous ; upper lipgaleate, 
erect, compressed, emarginate, narrower ; lower spreading, 
flat, half three-cleft, blunt ; middle segment narrower. Sta- 
mina : filaments four, the length of the upper lip, under which 
they lie concealed ; two shorter ; antherse incumbent, roundish, 
compressed. Pistil : germen roundish ; style fihform, in the 
same situation with the stamens, but longer; stigma blunt, 
bent in. Pericarp : capsule roundish, mucronate, oblique, 
two-celled, opening at top ; partition contrary. Seeds several, 
ovate, angular ; receptacle sublobular, in the base of the 
capsule. 

Essential character. — Calyx five-cleft; capsule two-celled, 
mucronate, oblique ; seeds coated. 

The " Common or heath lousewort," or the " Red rattle," 
the " Pedicularis sylvatica," has the stem branched, calyxes 
oblong, angular, even ; lip of the corollas cordate. Stem very 
short ; branches from the root, long, spreading close to the 



SELF-KEAL. COMMON SELF-HEAL. 



51 



ground. Leaves simply pinnate, with roundish acutely 
serrated spinas. Floral leaves deeply divided ; segments 
toothed. Leaves and flowers crowded. Flowers in June, 
and is found in wet pastures, heaths, and woods, in most 
parts of Europe. 

This weed may be got rid of by removing the wetness of 
the land by draining, and by top-dressing the surface with 
compost manures. 

15. The "Self-heal," or the "Prunella" of botany, is a 
very abundant weed on poor clay soils, in pastures of two 
and three years. The plant belongs to the class and order 
" Didynamia Gymospermia" of Linneus, and the natural 
order " Labiatse" of Jussieu. 

Generic characters. — Calyx : perianth one-leafed, two- 
hpped, shorter in the throat, permanent; upper lip flat, 
wider, truncate, very slightly three- toothed ; lower lip 
erect, narrower, acute, semibifid. CoroHa: one-petalled, 
ringent ; tube short, cyhndrical ; throat oblong ; upper lip 
concave, entire, nodding ; lower lip reflex, trifid, blunt ; 
middle segment wider, emarginate, serrate. Stamina : 
filaments four, awl-shaped, forked at top, two of them a 
little longer than the others ; anthers simple, inserted into 
the filaments below the top as it were on another branch. 
Pistil : germen four-parted ; style filiform, with the stamens 
bending to the upper lip; stigma bifid. Pericarp none; 
calyx closed, containing the seeds. Seeds four, subovate. 

Esseniial character. — Filaments forked at the apex, 
with an anther on one of the forks ; stigma bifid. 

The "common self-heal," or the "Prunella vulgaris," has 
the root perennial, and very fibrous. The whole plant is 
thinly set with hairs, the hairs upright and white. Stem 
from six to twelve inches in height, upright, commonly 
branching from the very bottom, hairy, purplish, especially 
towards the top. Branches in pairs at each joint, brachiate, 
ascending. Leaves bluntish, hairy, obsoletely toothed or 
repand ; petioles channelled above, and hairy along the 
edges. The flower is violet-coloured, with a white tube, 
and easily falls. Seeds smooth, brown, terminated by a 

E 2 



52 



WEEDS. 



white point. FJowers from June to August, and found in 
meadows and pastures in most parts of Europe. The size 
varies much : in open, exposed situations it is short and 
traihng ; but where drawn up among high grass, and 
especially in woods, it is upright and a foot high. 

In permanent meadows this plant may be banished by 
top-dressings, and in pastures of a few years' duration it 
will yield to the effects of a careful fallowing of the land. 

16. The ''Wild-campion," or the "Lychnis" of botany, 
is a weed of very frequent abundance on pastures formed 
from ploughed lands. The plant belongs to the class and 
order " Decandria Pentagynia" of Linneus, and the natural 
order " Caryophyllese" of Jussieu. 

Generic characters. — Calyx : perianth one-leafed, oblong, 
membranaceous, five-toothed, permanent. Corolla: petals 
five, claws the length of the calyx, flat, margined, border 
often cloven, flat. Stamina : filaments ten, longer than the 
calyx, alternately shorter, each of these fixed to a claw of 
each petal; antherse incumbent. Pistil: germen subovate; 
styles five, awl-shaped, longer than the stamens ; stigmas 
reflex against the sun, pubescent. Pericarp: capsule ap- 
proaching to an ovate form, covered; one, three, or five- 
celled, five-valved. Seeds very many, roundish. 

Essential character. — Calyx one-leaved, oblong, even. 
Petals five, with claws and a sub-bifid border. Capsule 
five-celled (in most one-celled). 

The " wild red campion," or the " rose-coloured Lychnis," 
has the flowers dioicous ; capsules one-celled, roundish. 
Root perennial, the thickness of the little finger ; white, of a 
slightly acrid and bitter taste, furnished with numerous 
fibres. Stalks several, upright, from one to three feet high, 
round, hirsute, jointed, purple; the joints swelled; the 
uppermost branches forked. 

The " common campions " are red and white in colour. They 
are not common on permanent meadows, and they are most 
effectually banished from ploughed pastures, by a careful 
fallowing of the land. 

17. "Dyer's broom," or the "Genista" of botany^ is a 



BYEr's broom. ORCHIS. 



53 



very abundant weed on strong and moist pastures. It 
belongs to the class and order " Diadelphia Decandria" of 
Linneus, and the natural order Leguminosse" of Jussieu. 

Generic characters. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of one 
leaf, small, tubular, two-lipped ; the upper lip with two teeth, 
more deeply divided ; lower, with three nearly equal teeth. 
Corolla papihonaceous ; standard oblong, remote from the 
keel, entirely reflexed ; wings oblong, lax, shorter than the 
other petals ; keel straight, emarginate, longer than the 
standard. Stamina : filaments ten, all united, emerging 
from the keel ; anthers simple. Pistil : germen oblong, 
enveloped by the common filament; style simple, directed 
upwards ; stigma acute, involute. Pericarp : legume 
roundish or oblong, turgid; of one cell, and two valves. 
Seeds several, mostly kidney-shaped, with a smooth elevated 
border round the scar. 

Essential character. — Calyx two-lipped ; the upper lip 
•with two teeth; lower with three. Standard oblong, bent 
backwards from the rest of the flower. 

This genus of plants are mostly European ; shrubby, with 
tough angular stems and branches, either ternate or simple 
leaves, and yellow flowers. The species are twenty-five in 
number, partly unarmed, and partly furnished with spines. 
The spinous ones have all simple leaves. Three " Genistse" 
are natives of Britain. 

The *' Genista tinctoria," or the Dyer's green weed," is 
the most common in England, and grows mostly on dry pas- 
tures. It is refused by no grazing animals but sheep, and it 
is supposed to give a bitter flavour to the milk of cows that 
feed upon it. It is rooted out by raising the plants by means 
of spades and forks. 

18. The Orchis" plant of several kinds, is common on 
most meadows. The plant belongs to the class and order 
" Gynandria monandria " of Linneus, and the natural order 
" Orchidese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth superior, of three 
spreading leaves, the uppermost vaulted. Corolla : petals 
two, often approximated, or attached to the upper leaf of 



54 



WEEDS. 



the calyx. Nectary, a spreading lip, with a tubular spur be- 
hind. Stamina : anther large, oblong, erect, attach'ed in a 
parallel manner to the summit of the style ; of two cells, open- 
ing in front ; the masses of pollen club-shaped, attaching 
themselves each by its taper base to one or two glands by 
the stigma, in one and the same pouch ; style columnar, 
short ; stigma below the anther, convex, oblique. Pericarp : 
capsule oblong, with three ribs ; of one cell, and three 
valves, splitting by three lateral fissures. Seeds numerous, 
minute, each with a chalfy tunic. 

Essential character. — Upper leaf of the calyx vaulted. 
Lip of the nectary, with a posterior spur. Anther terminal, 
parallel. Masses of pollen stalked, their bases approximated 
within a simple pouch. 

The " Orchis " is a very extensive genus, containing fifty- 
two species, in five divisions. The most common in Britain, 
in damp shady meadows, are the Orchis pyramidahs," and 
the ^' Orchis maculata," or the spotted " Orchis." The former 
has the bulbs undivided ; lip of the nectary two-horned, trifid, 
equal, quite entire ,* horn long. Petals sub-lanceolate. Bulbs 
ovate. Stem, from eight to fifteen inches high, round, or 
slightly angular, smooth and firm, almost covered with leaves. 
Flowers numerous, about eighty, crowded in a short blunt 
cone, forming a most elegant termination to the stem ; deep 
flesh colour, or pale purple. The leaves are linear lanceolate, 
and of a silky glossiness, and the bulging protuberances on 
the Hp of the nectary give a very distinguishing character to 
this species. Flowers in June and July. 

The " Orchis maculata," or the spotted " Orchis," has the 
bulbs pulmate, spreading ; horn of the nectary shorter than 
the germen ; lip flat ; dorsal petals erect. Bulbs palmated, 
compressed, with the segments much divaricated. Stem 
solid, from eight to eighteen inches high; the lower part 
round, the upper somewhat angular. Lower leaves embracing 
the stem ; lowest constantly short, broad and blunt ; the next 
considerably longer, bluntly lanceolate, above these, more 
acutely lanceolate ; upper ones very narrow, and apparently 
sessile, but the margins are decurrent, whence the angular 



EYE-BRIGHT. 



55 



appearance of the stem ; beneath they are silvery green, with 
parallel green nerves ; above, pale green, often partially covered 
with the same silvery skin, marked with numerous reddish 
brown spots, mostly oval and transverse, but sometimes 
irregular. Flowers numerous, about forty, in a loose conical 
spike. Corolla, usually pale purple ; anthers green. It flowers 
in June and July. 

These plants grow chiefly in woods, and on damp meadows. 
On dry pastures the size is reduced to the one-half, and has 
fewer flowers. All grazing animals refuse to eat them. The 
roots being strictly perennial, and the plant being seldom pro- 
pagated by seed, the eradication consists in raising the roots 
by means of small spades, and then destroying them. The 
stalks and leaves are juicy, and retard the process of hay- 
making. 

19. The Eye-bright," or the '^Euphrasia" of botany, 
grows very abundantly on dry pastures. The plant belongs 
to the class " Didynamia angiospermia " of Linneus, and the 
natural order " Pediculares" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth of one leaf, inferior, 
cylindrical, four-cleft, equal, permanent. Corolla of one 
petal, ringent ; tube as long as the calyx ; upper lip concave, 
notched ; lower spreading, deeply three-lobed, its lobes, equal 
and obtuse, notched. Stamina : filaments four, thread- 
shaped, situated close under the upper lip ; anthers of two 
lobes, the lobes unequally spinous at their lower extremities. 
Pistil ; germen superior, ovate ; style thread- shaped, agreeing 
in form and situation with the stamens; stigma obtuse, un- 
divided. Pericarp : capsule ovate, oblong, compressed, of 
two cells, and two valves \ the partition contrary to the valves. 
Seeds numerous, minute, roundish, longitudinally striated. 

Essential character, — Calyx cylindrical, four- toothed, 
equal ; upper lip of the corolla cloven ; lower three-lobed, the 
lobes cloven. Anthers bearded with unequal spines. Cap- 
sule ovate, oblong. Seeds striated. 

Two species abound in British pastures : the " Common 
eye-bright," or the " Euphrasia officinalis," and the Red 
eye-bright," or the "Euphrasia odontites." The former has 



56 



WEEDS. 



the leaves ovate, marked with lines, sharply toothed. Root 
annual. Stem from two to four inches high or more, upright, 
round, hoary, purple, for the most part branched, in opposite 
pairs. Leaves opposite, sessile, obtuse, convex above, concave 
beneath, finely ciliate about the edge, sHghtly hirsute on each 
side, above somewhat glossy. Flowers from the axils of the 
leaves, on short peduncles, opposite, forming a spike or ra- 
ceme at the tops of the branches and stem. It differs much 
in size and colour of the corolla, which varies to quite white 
and yellow ; it is more or less branching, and sometimes wholly 
unbranched. It seems to have been unnoticed by the 
ancients, and there appears to be no foundation for the old 
notion of its being useful in disorders of the eyes. 

This plant flowers from July to September, and grows very 
common on heaths and other dry pastures, especially on a 
chalky soil. It sheds a fair quantity of ready growing seeds, 
and, the root being annual, the prevention of the seeds being 
perfected offers the only way of eradicating the plant. Top- 
dressings with well-prepared composts have always the effect 
of banishing weeds, and of bringing forward the useful grasses. 
Close grazing of the land with sheep, has the same effect ; 
and the folding of the animals regularly over the field will 
produce a very good herbage, which will last for several years. 
This is a very cheap and effectual mode of restoring neglected 
and worn-out pastures, where, for special reasons, the plough- 
ing up of the sward is absolutely forbidden. 

20. " Sedge grasses," or the " Carex " of botany, are very 
common on old, sour, moist, clayey lands, of the meadow and 
pasture kind, that are undrained and unimproved. It belongs 
to the class and order Monoecia triandria " of Linneus, and 
the natural order " Cyperoidese " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Flowers disposed in one or more ob- 
long, imbricated catkins ; the male and female in some species 
are the same, in others on distinct catkins. Male : calyx glume, 
one-valved, one-flowered, lanceolate-acute, concave, perma- 
nent. Corolla none. Stamina : filaments three, bristle- 
shaped, erect, longer than the calyx; anthers erect, long, 
linear. Female : calyx as in the male. Corolla : petals 



SEDGE GRASS. — BLACK KNAP WEED. 



67 



none. Nectary inflated, oblong, egg-shaped, contracted up- 
wards, opening at the tip, sometimes with two teeth, perma- 
nent. Pistil : germen three-sided, within the nectary; style 
simple; stigmas either three or two, awl-shaped, incurved, 
long, acuminate, pubescent. Pericarp none, except the 
enlarged nectary, which protects the seed. Seeds single, 
acutely egg-shaped, most frequently three- sided, one angle 
often less than the other. 

Essential character. — 'Seed inclosed in the permanent 
nectary. 

These plants are very nearly allied to the grasses, and agree 
with them in their general appearance, leaves and placenta- 
tion. They are, however, of a much harsher texture, and the 
stem is not hollow, but filled with a spongy substance, and it 
is frequently three-cornered. The difference in the fructifica- 
tion is very considerable ; and the stem has no joints, which is 
the never-failing distinction of a true grass plant. The 
^' sedge grasses " are perennial, and flower from April to 
August. They grow in wet, swampy grounds, in bogs, fens, 
and marshes, or by the sides of ditches and rivers, or in moist 
woods ; some few, however, aflfect heaths and hilly pastures. 
They are eaten by no grazing animal, and seem produced 
by nature from a principle in her economy, that a bad plant 
is better than none. Upon getting quit of the superfluous 
moisture in the land, and by top-dressing the surface, the 
plants will commonly give way to a finer and more valuable 
herbage. 

The Sedge grass," though generally reckoned a weed, is 
not without its use. The herbage is very coarse and harsh, 
and relished by no animal. The roots give stability to bogs ; 
the plants are used for covering hovels and ricks, for hghting 
fires and heating ovens, and for tying young hop plants to 
the poles. In Lapland, the inhabitants comb and dress some 
species of sedge, as we do flax, and use it as a defence against 
the rigours of the climate. 

21. Black knap weed," or the " Centaurea " of botany, is 
a common and abundant weed in some moist and cold 
meadows and pastures. The plant belongs to the class and 



58 



WEEDS. 



oi'der " Syngenesia polygamia frustranea " of Linneus, and 
the natural order " Cinarocephalse " of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx common, imbricated, round- 
ish ; scales variously terminated. Corolla compound, flos- 
cular ; florets diflering in form ; those of the disk hermaph- 
rodite, numerous ; those of the ray fewer, loose, larger, fmmel- 
shaped, constantly abortive ; tube of the hermaphrodite 
florets filiform ; border bellying, oblong, erect, terminated by 
five linear erect segments; tube of the abortive florets slender, 
gradually enlarging, recurved ; border oblong, oblique, un- 
equally divided. Stamina of the hermaphrodite florets : fila- 
ments five, capillary very short ; anthers united into a hollow 
cylinder the length of the petal ; of the abortive florets none. 
Pistil of the former : germ small ; style filiform ; the length 
of the stamens; stigma very obtuse, projecting in a point; 
in many species bifid ; of the latter germ very small ; style 
scarcely any ; stigmas none. Seeds of the fertile florets soli- 
tary ; down in most species feathered or capillary ; receptacle 
bristly. 

Essential character. — Receptacle bristly. Florets of the 
ray funnel-shaped, longer, abortive. 

The common pasture w^eed is the species "Centaurea nigra'* 
of botany, which has the calyxes cihate, with the little scale 
ovate ; cilias, capillary, erect ; leaves lyrate, angular ; flowers 
floscular. Stem from two to three feet in height, angular, 
scored, slightly downy, often tinged with purple. It has many 
provincial names, as knap-w"eed, knop-w^eed, knob-weed, 
horse-knops, all from " knob or nob," a head ; also " hard- 
heads, hard-irons ;" and in Scotland it is called " horse-knot." 
It is a very harsh, stubborn plant, seldom touched by cattle, 
either green or in hay, and is with difiiculty extirpated. It 
is perennial, and matures an abundance of seeds. 

The seeding of the flowers must be prevented by cutting 
the plants when half grown by the scythe or hand sickle, and 
the roots must be raised and destroyed by spades and forks. 

22. The Wood or meadow anemone," the Anemone 
nemorosa" of botany, is a plant very common in meadows, - 
though disregarded by farmers. The plant belongs to the 



WOOD ANEMONE. WATER COWBANE. 59 

class and order " Polyandria polygynia'' of Linneus, and the 
natural order " Ranunculacese" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx none. Corolla : petals in two 
or three rows, three in a row, somewhat oblong. Stamina : 
filaments numerous, capillary half the length of the corolla ; 
antherge, twin, erect. Pistil ; germs numerous, in a head ; 
styles acuminate ; stigmas obtuse. Pericarp none ; recepta- 
cle globular or oblong, hollowed, and dotted. Seeds very 
many, acuminate, retaining the style. 

Essential character. — Calyx none; petals six or nine; 
seeds many. 

The "wood anemone" has the seeds acute ; leaflets gashed; 
stem one-flowered. The root is perennial, and the height of 
the whole plant is from five to ten inches. It grows in woods 
among bushes, and in hedges, and in pastures, and flowers in 
March, April, and May. In fine clear weather the blossoms 
are expanded, and become so erect as to face the sun ; but 
in the evening, and in wet weather, they are closed, and hang 
down. The plant is acrid, and in some degree poisonous. 
Horses, cows, and swine refuse it. 

The root, being perennial, must be raised and destroyed by 
spades and forks ; but such plants generally yield to good 
top-dressings, and pasturing of the land with sheep, assisted 
by folding the animals in order to deposit the excrements 
regularly over the surface. 

23. The " Water cowbane,"' or the Cicuta" of botany, 
is a plant of a poisonous nature, and communicates an un- 
pleasant odour to the milk of cows that eat the plants. The 
plant belongs to the class and order " Pentandria digynia'' 
of Linneus, and the natural order " Umbelliferse" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : umbel universal, roundish ; 
rays very many, equal ; partial roundish, with very many 
equal setaceous rays ; involucre universal none ; partial many- 
leaved ; leaflets bristly, short ; perianth proper ; scarcely 
visible. Corolla universal, uniform, floscules all fertile ; pro- 
per of five, ovate, inflected, nearly equal petals. Stamina : 
filaments five, capillary longer than the corofla ; antherae 
simple. Pistil : germ inferior ; styles two, filiform, longer 



60 



WEEDS. 



than the'corolla, permanent ; stigmas headed ; perianth none ; 
fruit subovate, furrowed, bipartite. Seeds two, subovate, 
convex, and striated on one side ; flat on the other. 

Essential character. — Fruit subovate, furrowed. 

The most common species is the " Cicuta virosa," or long- 
leaved water hemlock, which has the umbels opposite-leaved, 
petioles margined, obtuse. Stem round, hollow, two, three, 
and even four feet high, striated, smooth, reddish towards the 
bottom, dichotomous ; leaves sheathing, a foot and a half 
long, and near a foot broad ; the lower on long hollow petioles, 
the upper almost sessile, bipinnate ; some of the pinnas 
simple, others bifid or trifid ; the serratures sometimes brown ; 
the end leaf cut into three to the bottom ; all smooth. 

This plant flowers in July and August, and is one of the 
rankest of our vegetable poisons. Some writers have known 
cows killed from eating it, and that horses and sheep eat it 
with safety. It ought to be very carefully removed from pas- 
tures by digging up and destroying the roots. 

24. The " Meadow saffi'on," or the" Colchicum" of botany, 
is a very common weed in pasture and grass lands. The 
plant belongs to the class and order "Hexandria trigynia" of 
Linneus, and the natural order " Junci" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx a spathe. Corolla monope- 
talous, tubular, very long, springing immediately from the 
root ; border campanulate, deeply divided into six lanceolate, 
egg-shaped segments. Stamina :. filaments six, awl-shaped, 
shorter than the corolla, inserted into the tube ; anthers ob- 
long, four-valved, incumbent. Pistil : germen superior 
situated at the bottom of the tube of the corolla, contiguous 
to the root below the surface of the ground ; styles three, a 
little longer than the stamens ; stigmas reflexed, channelled. 
Pericarp : capsules three, inflated, coherent in their lower 
part, slightly separated towards the summit, opening longi- 
tudinally on the inner side. Seeds numerous, almost round, 
wrinkled. 

Esse7itial character. — Calyx a spathe. Corolla six-cleft ; 
tube springing immediately from the root ; capsules three, 
connected, inflated, with many seeds. 



MEADOW SAFFRON. TREACLE MUSTARD. 



61 



The " common meadow saffron/' or the Colchicum 
autmnnale," has the leaves flat, lanceolate, erect. Root 
bulbous, fleshy, milky, perishmg after the ripening of the 
seeds ; but first throwing out a lateral bulbous shoot, which 
produces the flowers of the ensuing year. Flowers generally 
purplish, opening in the latter end of September without 
stem or leaves. Leaves appearing in the ensuing spring, a 
foot long, broad, flattish, obtuse, dark green, upright, three 
or four together, sheathing. Capsules rising with the leaves, 
and ripening the seeds in May. The smell of the plant is 
very strong and nauseous, and the succulent bulb is poison- 
ous to man and beast. 

In an agricultural point of view, it is certainly a noxious 
weed to the farmer ; not, indeed, on account of its poisonous 
qualities, for neither cows, horses, nor sheep will touch it; 
but on account of its broad leaves, which occupy the place of 
better herbage. The only method of getting rid of it, is to 
dig up the bulbs with a spade, and to replace the earth when 
they have been separated from it. 

25. " Treacle mustard," or the " Thlaspi" of botany, is not 
vmcommon as a weed in meadows and pastures. It belongs 
to the class and order " Tetradynamia Siliculosa" of Linneus, 
and the natural order Cruciferae" of Jussieu. 

Generic character. — Calyx : perianth inferior, of four, 
ovate, concave, somewhat spreading, deciduous leaves. 
Corolla cruciform, equal, of four obovate petals, twice the 
length of the calyx, with narrow claws. Stamina : filaments 
six, but half the length of the corolla, the two opposite ones 
still shorter ; anthers pointed. Pistil : germen superior, 
roundish, compressed, emarginate; style simple, the length 
of the stamens ; stigma obtuse. Pericarp : pouch com- 
pressed, inversely heart-shaped, emarginate, the style being 
mostly the length of the notch in which it stands, of two 
cells, the partition lanceolate ; and the valves boat-Hke, with 
more or less of a dilated keel. Seeds : several in each cell, 
pendulous, inserted into the sutures, roundish, compressed. 

Essential character. — Pouch compressed, emarginate, 
inversely heart-shaped ; its valves, boat-like, keeled. Seeds 
several. 



62 



WEEDS. 



The "common penny cress, or smooth mithridate mus- 
tard/' or the "Thlaspi arvense/' has the pouch orbicular, 
compressed, entire at the base. Leaves oblong, toothed, 
smooth. It is annual, and flowers in June and July. The 
root is small and tapering. The whole plant is smooth, 
about a foot high, branched ; the stem leafy, angular up- 
wards. Leaves two or three inches long, clasping the stem 
with their arrow-shaped base, their edges wavy and toothed. 
Flowers numerous, small, white. Pouch large, erect, almost 
perfectly orbicular. Seeds numerous. The warm pungent 
taste of the plant is combined with a disagreeable garhck 
flavour. 

The root being annual, it only remains to guard against 
the perfecting of the seeds, by frequent cutting ofl* the growing 
stems by the scythe. 

26. The " Goose-tansy, silverweed, or feathered cinque- 
foil," or the " Potentilla" of botany, is a very common 
weed in pastures recently laid down from the arable state. 
The plant belongs to the class and order " Icosandria Poly- 
gynia" of Linneus, and the natural order " Rosacese" of 
Jussieu. 

Generic characters. — Calyx : perianth one-leaved, flattish, 
ten-cleft ; the alternate segments smaller, reflex. Corolla : 
petals five, roundish, spreading, inserted by their claws into 
the calyx. Stamina : filaments twenty, awl-shaped, shorter 
than the corolla, inserted into the calyx ; anthers elongate, 
lunulate. Pistil : germens numerous, very small, collected 
into a head ; styles filiform, the length of the stamens, 
inserted into the side of the germ; stigmas obtuse. Peri- 
carp none. Common receptacle of the seeds roundish, 
juiceless, very small, permanent, covered with seeds, inclosed 
within the calyx. Seeds numerous, acuminate, wrinkled. 

Essential character. — Calyx ten-cleft ; petals five ; seeds 
roundish, naked, fastened to a small juiceless receptacle. 

The common species, or the " Potentilla anserina," has 
the leaves interruptedly pinnate, serrate, silky underneath ; 
stem creeping ; peduncles one-flowered. Root fibrous, and 
penetrating deep. Stems creeping, round, jointed, reddish, 
downy. Leaves, silvery, white underneath. Petals yellow, 



RUSHES. BISTORT. 



63 



obtuse, twice the length of the calyx. Flowers from June to 
September. 

This plant thrives best on damp poor clays, where water 
stagnates, and then dries up. It is held as a mark of the 
sterility of the soil. The roots are sweet like parsnips, and 
are used as bread. Cows, horses, and swine are said to eat 
it, and sheep to refuse it. The name would seem to imply 
that geese are fond of it. 

In all arable lands, weeds must be eradicated by careful 
fallowing; and on pastures, top-dressing the surface with 
composts, eating it bare with sheep, and the folding of the 
animals for the purpose of depositing the excrements, will in 
most cases remove the weeds of the smaller size. 

27. "Eushes" of various kinds are often found on cold 
pasture lands. The generic and specific character of the plant, 
has been already given (page 42). The presence of the rush 
plant always indicates a superfluous moisture that wants to be 
removed, and, this object being effected by draining, the 
plant generally gives way to better herbage, though the 
extirpation and destruction afterwards will- be much pro- 
moted and accelerated by top-dressings of ashes and other 
matters. The plant is not of difficult extirpation. 

28. "Docks," "Rumex" of botany, are weeds mostly 
found on meadows and pastures of a strong and sourish 
nature, but sometimes of a very good quality. The generic 
and specific description has been already given (page 22). If 
the plants are permitted to ripen the seeds, they leave an 
immense quantity for future crops ; and that being perennial 
the evil is very much increased. The plant is refused to be 
eaten by all sorts of domestic animals ; and they should be 
rooted up after rain ; and it is useful in some cases to cut 
through the stalks under the ground, and to repeat the 
practice as shoots are again thrown up. 

29. " Bistort," or the " Polygonum Bistorta" of botany, 
is a very frecpient weed on moist meadows. The description 
of the genus has been already given. It is perennial, and 
the root is a very strong vegetable astrin^^ent. The raising 
of the roots is the only effectual mode of eradication. 



64 



WEEDS. 



30. " Restharrow/' or the "Ononis" of botany, is some- 
times found on dry, sandy pastures. The scientific descrip- 
tion of the plant has already been given (see page 20). The 
young shoots are eaten by cattle, but the stems are too 
shrubby. The plant may be raised by the roots, but the 
least fibre that is left in the ground grows with fresh vigour. 
By constantly cutting the tender shoots with the hoe, the 
plants may be much weakened, and the final extirpation 
will be very much assisted by top-dressings. 

31. "Thistles" are very common weeds on good dry, 
sound lands. The scientific description has been already given 
(p. 19). The plants are perennial, and grow very vigorously 
in some soils ; the roots are very strong, and shoot laterally 
to a great distance. The growing plants must be cut when 
half-grown, in meadows by the scythe, and in pastures by a 
sharp hoe ; and the roots may be drawn after soaking rains, 
when the plants are in full blossom, and before the seeds 
are ripened ; the hollow root parts will be best rotted on the 
stems being cut over. 

. 32. " Ox-eye great white daisy," or the "Chrysanthemum 
Leueanthemum" of botany, is a very common weed on the 
best and soundest pastures. The scientific description of 
the genus has been already given. It is not grateful to any 
grazing animal : when the plants are few, the roots may be 
drawn; but where the weed is very abundant the surface 
must be heavily top-dressed, eaten bare by sheep, and 
improved by folding the animals over it. 

33. "Crowsfoot plants," or the "Ranunculus" of botany, 
abound very much in various kinds, over the best meadows 
and pastures. The scientific description of the genus has 
already been given. The " bulbous-rooted, bitter, and creep- 
ing" species, are diflficult of distinction, and grow very much 
intermixed. It is doubtful if grazing animals relish these 
plants to eat, as they cannot avoid them in the mixed her- 
bage. The acrid pungent quality may be useful in stimu- 
lating the digestive organs ; and when made into hay, the 
plants are said to lose the pungent quality ; and the bright- 
ness of the blossom shows that the hay has been well got. 



MINT. RAG-WORT. MOSSES. 



65 



The seeds produced are very numerous, and the roots are 
perennial. The only mode of eradication is by top-dressings, 
and by using sheep as before recommended. 

34. " Mint," or the " Mentha " of botany, is a very com- 
mon weed in moist pastures. The scientific description of 
the genus lias ah^eady been given. At the end of the year, 
when pastures are bare, cows will eat it largely, and then it 
prevents the coagulation of the milk. The removal of the 
wetness of the land by draining, is the first step of eradica- 
tion, and then to be finished by top-dressings, and by using 
sheep as before mentioned. 

35. " Mouse-ear scorpion grass," or the Myosotis scor- 
pioides " of botany, is a very common weed on dry sheep 
walks. The generic description has already been given. It 
is said to be hurtful, and even fatal to sheep. Being low in 
growth, it must be eradicated by top-dressings, as before 
mentioned. 

36. " Rag-wort," or the " Senecio Jacobea " of botany, is a 
very common weed on good lands. The scientific description 
has already been given. The herbage is constantly refused 
by cows and horses, and sheep will eat it only when young. 
It is a sure mark of good quality of the land. Mowing of the 
stems prevents the perfection of the seeds, but does not de- 
stroy the roots. This is best done by eating down the plants 
when young, with sheep, or pulling the roots after soaking 
rains ; and they must be raised very carefully, as, the very 
smallest fibre being left, the roots will strike again. 

37. Mosses," or the " Musci " of botany, are the greatest 
pests of damp and heavy land meadows, and also on dry pas- 
tures. They belong to the cryptogamic class of vegetables, 
and form a very extensive order. Herb leafy. Corolla like 
a hood, bearing the style, and covering the capsule, which is 
closed with a hd. Roots fibrous and branched. They are 
not confined to the base of the plant, but are abundantly pro- 
truded, in five minutely jointed branched tufts from various 
parts of the stem, which, no doubt, imbibe nourishment as 
well as moisture. The stem is often simple, and frequently 
branched. Leaves invariably simple and undivided, the mar- 

F 



66 



WEEDS. 



gin only being serrated, and in some few instances being 
toothed. The fructification is sometimes lateral, and in that 
case always axillary, but sometimes terminal. 

Various plans have been adopted and recommended for the 
extirpation of mosses. The most plausible is to scratch and 
tear the surface of the ground with sharp-teethed harrows, to 
apply a good top-dressing, and to sow the seeds of grasses. 
Another cure consists in folding sheep on the surface. But 
these modes are only temporary, for in a very few years the 
mosses again appear, and usurp the dominion of the surface. 
Experience has shown that breaking up the land, and relay- 
ing it with fresh seeds, is the only effectual cure, after the 
land has been well fallowed, cleaned, and manured, subse- 
quently to the bearing of culmiferous and leguminous crops. 
This mode is the most effectual, and consequently the most 
economical in the end. 

A notice and description might be added of some weeds 
that are very conmionly found on road sides, and by the roots 
of hedges and fences. But such plants are very easily known, 
and should all be cut by midsummer, and the labour will be 
repaid by the value of the ashes when burned. The seeds of 
such weeds when perfected, are blown by the wind, and 
carried by birds, and consequently infest the meadows and 
arable fields. A compulsory clause should be inserted into 
every lease or agreement of holding land, that these weeds be 
all cut by midsummer, on every road-side and fence-root on 
the farm and the sides of the main roads ; and the ditches 
must be cleaned by the notice of the commissioners. Seeds 
of weeds are perfected in such places in quantity sufficient to 
stock the whole neighbourhood ; and a careful farmer is often 
put to very considerable expense in paying for his neighbours' 
neglect. It is a part of the land-agent's business, or of his 
deputy, to see the performance of such very necessary clauses 
on every estate. 

Weeds should be very carefuU}^ eradicated from all com- 
mons and unimproved lands, for, if the tardy wisdom of the 
human intellect be not yet ready for the inclosing and culti- 
vation of every inch of reclaimable land, much good may be 



MOSSES. 



67 



effected by destroying weeds, and substituting a better herb- 
age, by removing the wetness, and consolidating the surface. 
This step would render easier, and more susceptible, the last 
and fast-coming state of arable cultivation. 

Weeds may be divided into two very easily remembered 
sections of "annual and perennial." The first division are 
propagated chiefly by yielding a profusion of easily ripened 
seeds ; the second spread mostly by the roots, while some 
plants in both sections possess the two properties in a very 
considerable degree. The first division of plants require the 
care of eradication to be bestowed before the seeds are ripened, 
or rather before they are half-ripened, for the vitality is very 
precocious ; and this precaution must be used in completely 
fallowing the lands, and by drilling the crops, in order to 
affording opportunities of hoeing and hand-weeding. And, 
when the plants are very abundant, the better way is to carry 
them off the land, after being cut by the hoe. The perennial 
weeds are larger than the annual, and are removed by the 
stems being pulled by hand, or cut by the scythe or sickle, 
and by the roots being raised by the spade or forks, and de- 
stroyed. These two modes will comprehend the general 
destruction of the weeds, according to the nature of the 
plants. 



PART II. 



ZOOLOGICAL. 

QUADRUPEDS. 
BIRDS. 
INSECTS. 
WORMS. 



71 



PART II. ZOOLOGICAL. 

Sect. I. Quadrupeds. 

It may be observed of animals, as in the case of weeds, 
that it must not be supposed that they are useless productions, 
because an abundance of them proves injurious to the specific 
object of the farmer. Insects- and worms afford, by the de- 
composition of their dead bodies, a very fertilizing ingredient 
in the composition of soils, and the absence or presence of 
decayed animal and vegetable matters characterizes the 
fertility or barrenness of the different earthy formations. 
Many of the quadrupeds afford a most agreeable and delicate 
food, and several of the winged creation have been long used 
in affording; a nutritious sustenance to the human race. Some 
animals of both kinds are of no immediate application, yet 
they may answer some purpose that has escaped our obser- 
vation. 

It seems reasonable to destroy those that appear the least 
useful, and to encourage the propagation of the others that are 
known to be productive of some benefit. And this principle is 
doubly enforced by the knowledge that the useless ones destroy 
the useful, according to the invariable law of nature, that the 
stronger animals hve by devouring the weaker. And it so 
happens, that the weaker ones are the most useful. 

As the produce of the earth raised at the cost of the farmer, 
maintains all the " ferse naturse," either directly or indirectly, 
it follows that he must have the management and profit that 
can arise from the value of the useful animals in the same way 
as the other animals of the farm, for which he pays the usu- 
fructuary value. By this arrangement, no farmer would 



72 



QUADRUPEDS. 



reckon ah animal useless from which he derived any value; 
and that designation would only be applied to those animals 
which destroy the others that are valuable to him. A very 
narrow compass would then contain the list of organized 
bodies which do any damage to the cultivator of the earth, 
and he would have his attention more confined to the de- 
struction of the real enemies of his business. 

1. The ^' Fox"* is an animal of the dog kind. In natural 
history, it belongs to the series Vertebrata ; class Mammalia ; 
order Sarcophaga, or preying ; family Digitigrada, or toe- 
treaders ; genus Canis ; and sub-genus Canis vulpes, or the 
common fox. The genus Canis contains the dogs, wolves, 
foxes, the civets and ichneumons ; besides a few minor genera 
of recent introduction. 

Incisors -; canines - ] ; molars ^ — ^ = 42 teeth. The 

6 1—1 7—7 

incisive teeth are all placed on the same line, and are usually 
trilobate, before being worn by use. The upper molars con- 
sist of three small single-lobed false molars, one bicuspidate 
carnivorous cheek-tooth, and two small tuberculous teeth 
with flattened crowns. The inferior molars consist of four 
false molars, one carnivorous cheek-tooth, and two tubercu- 
lous grinders. The tongue is smooth. The anterior extremi- 
ties are furnished with five toes, the posterior with four. 

The fox inhabits all Europe, the cold and temperate parts 
of Asia, and Barbary also, but not the hotter parts of Africa. 
He abounds in North America, and is found in South America, 
as far as Chili, and occurs in all northern and temperate cli- 
mates, differing in size and colour, according to the circum- 
stances of the locality. In Europe it is chiefly distinguished 
by its long straight tail, with a white tip to it, and differs from 
the common dog in the length, dense disposition, and soft- 
ness of the hairs, especially of those about its tail, which is 
bushy, much admired by the animal itself, and in cold weather 
wrapped round its nose ; and in its smell, which is peculiarly 
rank and disagreeable. The smell of its urine is remarkably 
foetid, insomuch that the animal covers it in the earth. It 



THE FOX. 



73 



makes use of the badger's hole, and uses its urine to expel 
the badger by the smell. Its usual colour is a reddish tawny, 
though sometimes white, and even black. The fore-feet and 
the tops of the ears are black ; the ears are erect, and the lips 
are w^hite. It digs a hole for itself in the earth, and is with 
difficulty tamed to lose its fierceness. The eye is most signi- 
ficant of fear and hatred. 

In all countries the fox maintains the same cunning dispo- 
sition, the same eagerness after prey, and commits the same 
ravages among game, birds, poultry, and the smaller quad- 
rupeds. It is a beast of chase, usually very prejudicial to the 
husbandman, by taking away and destroying his lambs, geese 
and poultry. It will feed on flesh of any kind, and when 
urged by hunger it will eat carrots and insects, and the dung 
of other animals ; and near the sea coasts, from want of other 
food, it will eat crabs, shrimps, or shellfish. In France and 
Italy it eats the grapes, and gets very fat upon them, and the 
flesh is then reckoned to be good food. The fox is a great 
destroyer of rats and other field animals. It secures its prey 
by digging holes in several places, and there leaves it until the 
calls of hunger induce him to find it for use. It generally 
goes to a distance from its own haunts to commit plunder and 
thefts. 

The fox is exceedingly voracious, and indisputably the 
most sagacious and most crafty of all beasts of prey. He 
eats flesh of all kinds, eggs, milk, cheese, and fruits. Young 
hares and partridges are very favourite food, and rats, field- 
mice, toads, serpents, and lizards. He is also fond of honey, 
and destroys the hives of wild bees, wasps, and hornets. His 
artful cunning has ever been proverbial : when wasps fix on 
his body, he retires, and roils on the ground for the purpose 
of crushing them, and soon returns to destroy the hive. He 
fixes his abode in a wood near to some cottages, where he 
listens to the crowing of the cock, and the cries of the poultry. 
He scents them at a distance, and chooses his time — he con- 
ceals his road as well as his design — hie slips forward with 
caution, and sometimes even trails his body along. He leaps 
the walls, or gets underneath, and ravages the court-yard, by 



74 



QUADRUPEDS. 



carrying off one animal at a time, which he hides separately, 
and making several journeys till the approach of the morn- 
ing, or some movements advertise him to suspend his opera- 
tions. In the same way he stealthily catches woodcocks 
and thrushes. He hunts the young hares in the plains, seizes 
old ones in their seats, and never loses those that are wounded 
— digs out rabbits in their warrens — discovers the nests of 
partridges and quails — seizes the hen on the eggs, and destroys 
a vast quantity of game. The fox sleeps in a round form like 
a dog ; but, when he only reposes, he extends his hind legs, 
and lies on his belly. In this posture, he watches the birds 
along the hedges, and meditates schemes for their surprise. 

The fox flies when he hears the explosion of a gun, or 
smells gunpowder. He basks in the sun, and very much en- 
joys the free air ; but always chooses some covered place to 
be secure from surprise. His flesh is not so bad as that of 
the wolf : dogs, and even men, eat it in France, and in many 
other countries. 

Foxes produce but once a year, and the litter is generally 
of four or five, seldom six, and never less than three. When 
the female is full, she retires, and seldom goes out of her 
hole, where she prepares a bed for her young. When dis- 
turbed, she removes her young to another hole, one by one. 
A fox in the first year is called a " cub in the second, a fox ; 
and afterwards an old fox. 

The genus "Canis" is a very numerous family of animals, 
and it has been remarked that no one tribe has a more deadly 
animosity to each other. It is a fixed law of nature, that the 
stronger animals live by devouring the weaker ; and even when 
the cravings of nature are not pressing the constitutional 
pugnacious disposition prompts most animals even of the 
same genus and species to fight and kill each other. Very 
many animals leave a scent or odour on their track, which is 
supposed to proceed from the perspiration of their bodies ; 
but no satisfactory reason has been given of this peculiarity. 
Dogs are provided by nature with a number of very acute 
olfactory nerves in the nose, evidently given them for the 
purpose of following their prey, and which, joined to an un- 



THE POLECAT. 



75 



tiring swiftness of foot, renders an escape from them almost 
impossible. The smell of the fox is proverbially offensive, 
and is supposed to proceed, as in many other quadrupeds 
from certain glands, situated near the tail ; yet Linneus sup- 
posed that it arose from the upper part of the tail, where an 
ambrosial odour has been found ; and that a violaceous scent 
proceeds from a spot on the tail. The smell of the fox in ge- 
neral so exactly resembles that of the root of the " crown im- 
perial" as not to be distinguished. 

The above quahties having been very early discovered, that 
certain animals emit an odour which other animals inhale, 
and which directs the pursuit of the former, the hunting of 
the one animal with a multitude of others became, and is yet 
continued as a manly sport, and a favourite exercise. But 
there can be no pleasure where pain is inflicted on any living 
thing ; and the sight of the pangs of expiring life can afford 
no satisfaction to the eyes of sense and feehng. The fox is 
strictly a carnivorous animal, and is injurious to the farmer 
only in the case of destroying poultry : the destruction of 
hares and rabbits does not concern him, unless he be allowed 
a share in the use of them. A multitude of persons on horse- 
back, galloping over a farm, leaving gates open, breaking 
fences, and treading on sown grounds, inflict an injury equal 
to the depredations of the fox ; and the sport that may be 
afforded to the pursuers of the animal does not enter into 
the calculations of the farmer. When foxes become too nu- 
merous, they are best destroyed by baited gins, and a train 
made by drawing raw flesh across the usual paths or haunts 
to the gin, in order to allure him to the place of destruction. 
He may be also shot by watching times and opportunities. 
Hunting can only be considered as a relic of a barbarous age, 
when the uncultivated state of man " ranked him among the 
ferse naturse." 

2. The Polecat, or " Foumart," is the " Mustela" of 
zoology, a genus of the class Mammalia ; order Sarcophaga, 
or preying ; and family Digitigrada, or toe-treaders. The 
generic character is :~six upper fore-teeth, erect, acute, dis- 



76 



QUADRUPEDS. 



tinct ; and six lower, which are more obtuse and crowded ; 
two are placed within ; the tongue is smooth. The divisions 
of the genus, or weezels, have "feet cleft." The polecat 
species, or the ^'Mustek Foina," has the body blackish 
tawny, throat and breast white. The appearance is very 
elegant. The length of the body from nose to tail is about 
eighteen inches, and the tail is ten inches. It is a native of 
most parts of Europe, inhabiting w^oods and fields, and preys 
on birds and other small animals. The young are easily 
tamed, and rendered domestic. It breeds in the hollows of 
trees, and brings forth from three to five young at a time. 
The skin is used as far. 

The weasel tribe of animals are carnivorous, subtle, and 
bold, and take their prey by surprise, and no animals are 
better endowed by nature for an insidious attack. Were 
they as large and powerful as they are active, wily, and dar- 
ing, they ^vould be more formidable than the hon or the tiger, 
and infinitely more destructive, as they kill when opportunity 
offers, by wholesale, sucking the blood, and devouring only 
a portion of their victims, thereby effecting a large w^aste of 
life. Their form is long and slender, and such is their snake- 
like pHability, that they can twist themselves in the most ex- 
traordinary manner, and insinuate themselves into holes and 
crevices which one would think impossible for them to enter. 
The limbs are short, but powerful, and the toes are armed 
with sharp claws ; hence they climb trees, or the sides of rough 
walls or buildings, with great agility. In their movements 
they appear to ghde along ; but they can bound and spring 
with considerable vigour, and know well how to fasten on 
their adversary. 

In attacking their victims, they generally aim at the neck, 
below the ear, where they pierce the large veins with their 
teeth, or they fix upon the back of the head, and drive their 
canine teeth through the skull. 

Their habits are nocturnal or crepuscular. The day is 
passed in their retreats, such as the hollows of decayed trees, 
burrows in the ground, holes in walls, and ruined masonry, 
and fissures in rocks. As evening shades prevail, they rouse 



THE HARE. 



77 



from their repose, and begin to prowl. The eyes are sharp 
and piercing, the ears small, and the senses of sight, smell, 
and hearing are very acute. The sub-caudal glands secrete 
a fluid of very unplea^nt odour. It makes a most vigorous 
resistance when attacked by a dog or man, and will defend 
itself to the last. 

In the neighbourhood of a farm-yard, the polecat is more 
mischievous than the fox : whole broods of chickens are often 
destroyed in a single night, and the bodies left on the spot. 
Ten ducks and as many large turkeys have been known to 
be destroyed in a single night separately. It finds access to 
the poultry house by scraping a passage below the walls or 
the threshold of the door. Winter is the time of its haunt- 
ing the farm-yard; in summer, it resorts to plantations, 
woods, and preserves of game, where it lives on leverets, 
young partridges and pheasants, and on eggs. It is easiest 
destroyed by means of baited traps and gins. 

3. The " Hare " is a small quadruped, and belongs to 
the class Mammalia; order Rodentia and Saltigrada; and 
family Hemiclaviculata, or provided with imperfect collar 
bones. The animals of this genus have two fore-teeth in 
each jaw ; in the upper jaw is a second inner row of fore- 
teeth, considerably smaller than the outer or primaries ; the 
fore-feet have each five, and the hind feet four, toes. These 
animals are very timid ; they live on vegetable food ; they 
use the hind feet in walking as far as the heel, running by a 
kind of leaps, or repeated bounds. They have either exceed- 
ingly short tails, named " scuts," or none at all. 

The hare is the " Lepus" of the Romans, by whom the 
flesh was held in high esteem. The ancient Britons did not 
use it. The Lepus timidus," or the common hare, has a 
very short tail, the ears longer than the head, and black at 
the ends. The eyes are very large and prominent ; the chin 
is white, and the whiskers are very long ; the hair and fur on 
its face, back, and sides, is white at the bottom, black in the 
middle, and tipt with tawny red ; the throat and breast are 
red, and the belly white ; the tail is black above, and white 



78 



QUADRUPEDS. 



beneath ; and the feet are covered with hair even at the bot- 
tom. The animal inhabits all parts of Europe ; most parts 
of Asia, Japan, Ceylon, Egypt, and Barbary. It is a very 
watchful, timid animal, always lean, and runs swifter up hill 
than on even ground ,• and hence, when started, it endeavours 
to run up hill. It frequently saves itself and escapes by 
various artful doublings. It lies in its seat all day, and feeds 
by night, and returns to its seat or nest among bushes or long- 
grass by the same road it left it ; it does not pair. The urine 
is fetid. The rutting season is in February and March, when 
the male pursues the female by the sagacity of its nose ; they 
breed often in the year — go with young thirty or thirty-one 
days, and bring forth three or four at a time ; they admit the 
male during the time of their gestation, and, as they are very 
lascivious, they have frequent superfetations. The male and 
female are very liable to be mistaken for one another. The 
mother suckles her young about twenty days. The fur is of 
great use in the manufacture of hats. They are very subject 
to fleas. The animal is about two feet in length, and weights 
eight to nine pounds, rarely twelve. Hares have neither eye- 
Hds nor eye-lashes, but a nictating membrane, which remains 
open while the animal sleeps ; their sight appears to be im- 
perfect, but they have an acute sense of hearing, and enor- 
mous ears in proportion to the size of their bodies. They move 
these long ears with great facility, and employ them as a 
rudder to direct their course, which is so rapid that they out- 
strip all other animals. The period of their natural life is 
said to be about seven years, and the males live longer than 
the females ; they pass their days in solitude and silence, fre- 
quently in fear and trembling, as a falling leaf is sufficient to 
alarm them ; their voice is never heard but when they are 
wounded or seized, and then it is a sharp, loud cry, somewhat 
resembling the human voice. They are easily tamed, but 
never become thoroughly domesticated, always regaining their 
liberty when opportunity offers. They have been trained to 
beat a drum, and to perform gestures in cadence. They pos- 
sess sufficient instinct for their own preservation, and show 
much sagacity in escaping from their enemies : in this re- 



THE HARE. 



79 



spect, they differ veiy much. They turn more or less white 
with age. They are thought to be longer and stronger in 
proportion to the coldness of the climate. They are much 
exposed to destruction by men, dogs, cats, foxes, wolves, and 
birds of prey — as owls, buzzards, vultures, and eagles ; so 
that it is almost a miracle that any of them escape destruc- 
tion. 

The hare is a most timid creature, continually listening 
after every noise, and will run a long way on the least sus- 
picion of danger ; so that she always eats in terror, and runs 
herself out of flesh continually. They are made fat by feed- 
ing in a safe place, and without apprehension, which is done 
by stopping their ears with wax, and rendering them deaf, so 
that they do not get alarmed. 

Hares feed on vegetables, and are fond of the bark of 
young trees, except that of the alder and the lime, which they 
never touch ; they are very fond of birch, parsley, and pinks. 
In hard seasons, they do considerable damage to young 
nurseries and orchards by barking the young trees, which 
may be prevented by surrounding the nursery with a close 
fence, and in the orchard each single tree may be surrounded 
to the height of two feet by a circular wire fence. It is cus- 
tomary to smear the trees with tar, which must hurt the trees, 
and is not so effectual as the wire fence, as it lasts only one 
year. 

Hares are hurtful to the farmer only when they become 
very numerous, which may be easily prevented by occasional 
shooting ; which liberty being given to the farmer, will pre- 
vent any damage, and afford him amusement, and give rise 
to no dislike. The hunting of hares to death by coursing 
with harriers or grey-hounds is so contemptible as hardly to 
deserve notice. 

The flesh of the hare is dry ; and the habitual exercise of 
the animal exalts its salts, and renders it somewhat alkales- 
cent ; and this tendency is much increased if it is killed im- 
mediately after being heated by strong exercise. It is best 
used in making soups. 



80 



QUADRUPEDS. 



4. The " Rabbit " is a furry animal that lives on plants, 
and burrows in the ground. It is the " Lepus cuniculus " 
of zoology, being a species of that genus. Tail short, 
nearly the colour of the body, ears black at the tip, hind legs 
shorter than the body. This species inhabits naturally the 
temperate and the warm parts of Europe, and even the hottest 
parts of Asia and Africa. It is not indigenous to Britain, but 
succeeds very well in it. It will not live in Sweden, and the 
northern counties, except in covered houses. They were im- 
ported from Spain into Italy. They are not natives of the 
western world, but they have multiphed amazingly in South 
America, since they were carried thither. They are exceed- 
ingly prolific ; they breed seven times in a year, and produce 
eight young at a time. They occupy dry sandy soils, forming 
long winding burrows ; they confine themselves to these holes 
in the middle of the day, and wander in the evening, night 
and morning, in the search of food. The flesh is white, and 
much esteemed. They pair, and are very faithful to their 
mates, but never cross with hares. The most remarkable 
difference between hares and rabbits is, that the former live 
above ground, and the latter below ground. The rabbit 
acquires full size in six months, and lives about eight or nine 
years. 

The colour of the wild rabbit is brownish grey ; and the 
tame varieties are black, uniform white, with fiery red eyes ; 
pied, or mottled, black and white, and silvery grey, or ash 
colour, with tawny feet. They grow to a large size, and are 
fed in confinement. 

The rabbit is granivorous, and is much more destructive 
than the hare to young plants. The numbers are greater, and 
the habits are more fixed, and the residence is more perma- 
nent. Winter vetches are much destroyed by them, as there 
is not any other tender vegetation at that season of the year 
to divert their attention. Young barley is a favourite food 
with them. But rapid-growing cereal plants soon push be- 
yond their reach, and on thick crops on well-farmed lands the 
damage is little apparent. But on thin, straggUng crops, the 
whole vegetation is often consumed near to the burrows, 
where the open crops admit their hearing and watching the 



THE RABBIT. 



81 



approach of danger. The barking of young trees by rabbits, 
is prevented as for hares. The chief damage done by them, 
is by burrowing in the banks of hedge roots, where they un- 
dermine the growth of the plants, and prevent the consohda- 
tion. The furry down that is rubbed from their bodies, and 
which adheres to the quicksets in the very frequent passage 
to and from the field for food, is pernicious to vegetable life. 
But these results only happen from an over-abundant number 
of rabbits ; when kept in moderate numbers, very little or no 
damage is observable. The destruction of them may be 
effected by shooting, or better by spreading nets over the 
mouths of the burrows, and sending muzzled ferrets into the 
holes, in order to drive them out. A moderate number is 
pleasant to behold ; and, to a contemplative mind, no part of 
nature's works can be more pleasing, in a summer's evening, 
than these splendid minatures of creation, feeding and watch- 
ing ; washing their long ears and their face, with the fore- 
paws regularly in alternation, and wetting the paw with their 
tongue, to make it abstergent, raising their ears to listen, and 
setting the body bolt upright to behold from a greater height, 
and to command a longer distance. When the use of migra- 
tory animals becomes the " interim " property of the pro 
tempo7'e domicile, as it most justly is, the farmer will delight 
in a moderate number of the i-abbit, as a useful ornament to 
his interim property. 

" Warrens " have been formed of wild rabbits, where they 
are confined within a certain space of occupation, and bred 
for the purpose of a hired profit. The purpose is answered, 
where there is a not very distant available demand for the 
flesh and the fur. Waste lands of a dry sandy nature, to ad- 
mit the formation of burrows, might be profitably used in this 
way. But it supposes some cultivation to raise green food 
for summer and winter, and these spaces must be closely 
fenced during the growth of the plants. A portion of the 
ground would be very useful by being sown permanently with 
clovers and grasses, parsley and legumes. This would form 
a constant grazing ground ; and other crops could be raised 
in inclosed spaces, to suit the different seasons of the year. 

G 



82 



QUADRUPEDS. 



Nature has so furnished the world with animals and vege- 
tables that are suited to the constitutional materials of its form, 
that no part of the exposed surface of the globe may remain 
idle, if the very visible specimens and dictates of observation 
and reflection were duly entertained, and the necessary and 
very simple practices performed. 

The Mole. — The proper name of the mole is " Mould- 
warp," meaning to cast up earth. It is the "Talpa" of 
zoology, and belongs to the class Mammalia, order Scarco- 
phaga or preying, and family Insectivora, or Insect-eaters ; of 
which the characters are : the front teeth in the upper jaw are 
six and unequal ; those in the lower jaw are eight ; the canine 
teeth are one on each side, the upper ones being the largest; 
and the grinders are seven in the upper jaw, and six in 
the lower. The Talpa Europea," or the common mole, has 
a short tail, and pentadactylous, or five-toed, feet. The body 
is thick and cylindric ; the snout slender, but very strong and 
tendinous ; the head not distinguished from the body by any 
appearance of neck ; the legs so extremely short, as scarce to 
project perceptibly from the body ; the fore feet situated ob- 
liquely outwards, excessively strong and broad, and furnished 
with very large and stout claws, so as to give the animal 
the power of working under the surface with the utmost ease 
and readiness ; the hind feet are small in proportion to the 
fore feet, and are calculated for throwing back with ease the 
mould from behind the creature, during its subterraneous pro- 
gress ; the tail is short and small ; the skin is much thicker 
and tougher in proportion than in other quadrupeds, and the 
fur with which it is covered equally surpasses that of other 
animals in fineness and softness. The muscular strength of 
the mole is very great, and it is enabled to force itself into the 
ground with an extraordinary degree of celerity. The gene- 
ral length of the body is about six inches, exclusive of the tail, 
which measures one inch. The sense of hearing is very acute 
and delicate. The eyes are holes adapted merely for the pur- 
pose of apprizing it of danger. The mole feeds chiefly on 
worms and insects, and occasionally on the roots of vege- 
tables ; but it is more carnivorous than frugivorous. In par- 



THE MOLE. 



83 



ticular circumstances, it is very fierce and voracious. It re- 
quires damp mould for the purpose of living. The colour is 
sometimes white, spotted, and cream-coloured. It swims 
well. 

The health of the mole is liable to be injured by the too 
free access of air, and it very frequently changes its subter- 
ranean habitations. It is commonly found in soft fertile 
soils, and never in miry, nor in gravelly grounds. When 
surprised by water, it springs in haste to the surface; and in 
winter, and during rains, it betakes itself to the upper 
grounds, which are less liable to be inundated. In the 
spring it descends to the meadows, where it finds a loosened 
soil, and roots to feed upon. In long droughts it flies to 
ditches, or to the shelter of hedges, and near to a stream. 
In the spring months of February, March, April, and May, 
the female produces four or five young ones at a birth, in an 
arched recess prepared for the purpose under ground, in a 
situation somewhat elevated, and under cover of a bush or 
hedge. Four or five mole-hills are generally to be observed 
very near to the upper side of this recess. The animal 
cannot live long without being at work. Being obliged to 
search under ground for its food, as insects and roots, it 
forms very long tunnels or subterraneous passages that are 
generally parallel to the surface of the earth, and vary in 
depth from four to six inches, according to the changes of 
the seasons. Being equally afraid of cold and heat, they 
make the passages the deepest in summer and in winter. 
They are very timid when they perceive themselves in 
danger; they often penetrate perpendicularly to the depth 
of one foot and a half, below the level of their ordinary 
residence. The mole works in all seasons, but more lan- 
guidly in winter. The male is very much stronger than the 
female, and raises a greater number of larger hills. Young 
moles raise shallower passages than the old ones. Moles 
work most briskly at sunrise and sun-setting: in time of 
droughts, they throw up hills only at sun-setting. In 
winter, they work only during gleams of sunshine. 

When a mole changes its place, it throws up three, four, 

G 2 



84 



QUADRUPEDS. 



six, or even nine hills of earth, according to its age. Con- 
sequently all the hills formed by any one mole commmiicate 
with one another by subterraneous passages. The mole 
much dreads the access of external air ; and, if the tunnel 
or passage be opened, the animal will immediately come to 
the aperture, and construct an arch of loose mould over the 
hole, which it repeats if the hole be again broken open. On 
these two facts, the art of mole-catching is founded. 

The mole is injurious to the farmer by raising heaps of 
earth on meadows and pastures, which destroy the grass 
below and around them, and in making tunnels or vacancies 
among and below the roots of green crops. Mole-hills also 
very much obstruct the scythe in mowing. On pasture 
lands, the hills must be spread thinly about by means of a 
hght hand-spade ; and on arable lands, and on mowed 
grounds, the animals should be destroyed. This purpose is 
effected by placing traps in the tunnels or passages, of the 
size and shape of the ruts, and sufficient to admit the body 
of the mole. A bait is placed in the trap, and secured by a 
string, which reaches upwards to the point of a curved rod 
fixed in the ground by the other end. The animal, in eating 
the bait, gnaws the cord, and, the bended rod being released, 
springs upwards, and carries with it the trap and the mole 
in it, suspended and strangled by the waist, by means 
of another cord which is fastened to the bended rod. The 
best time of the year for destroying moles is in the spring, 
when they move to the fields from the winter abodes on the 
sides of ditches, and from hedge banks. 

Several practical w^riters have disputed if the mole be 
injurious to cultivation, reckoning the animal to be the 
destroyer of noxious insects, and to form a fine top-dressing, 
in the earth of the hills being spread over the pasture 
ground. But the wire-worm works so very rapidly, that 
no common number of slow-moving moles could arrest its 
progress; and the other hurtful insects are very much 
beyond the reach of the moles. On mowed grounds of all 
kinds the hills are very minous to the scythe ; and they are 
often formed after the tall grass prevents their being seen 



THE RAT. 



85 



and demolished. On turnip lands, when the plants are in 
the younger state, the runs of the mole often undermine and 
destroy the growth of a very considerable number of plants ; 
and potatoes are also hurt at that time. On pastures, the 
effects are not so evident, only the hills must be constantly 
spread abroad, or a quantity of grass is lost, and the objects 
are unsightly. Though the mole be not a foremost animal 
in point of destruction, yet we think it is sufficiently so to 
warrant its removal, or being kept in very moderate 
numbers. 

The Rat is the "Mus" of zoology; and belongs to the 
class Mammalia; order Rodentia ; and the family Clavi- 
culata ; or, provided with perfect collar bones. The genus 
" Mus" contains a number of varieties; the generic charac- 
ter is : fore-teeth upper wedged ; grinders three, rarely two, 
on each side the jaw ; clavicles perfect. The whole genus is 
characterized as living in holes, or any concealed chinks, 
climbing and running swiftly ; some of them swim. The 
name is very frequently pronounced "ratten" or " ratton." 
The genus " Mus" is divided into five families : 1. Tail com- 
pressed at the end ; 2. Tail round, naked ; 3. Tail round, 
hairy; 4. Cheeks pouched; 5. Subterraneous or ground 
rats. The rat is the " Mus rattus," or black rat, of the 
second family, tail round, naked. It has the tail very long, 
scaly ; body black, cinereous beneath. This species, though 
now common in most parts of Europe, is supposed to have 
been originally introduced from India and Persia. The 
word "rattus," or "rat" is modern; the Romans compre- 
hended all kinds under the word " mus." None are found 
in Siberia or Kamtschatka. They swarm in Otaheite, and 
in the other Society Islands ; and are met with in New 
Zealand and New Holland. In Otaheite they boldly attack 
persons when asleep. It was found native in North Ame- 
rica, but was imported into South America in 1554. 

The general length of the rat species, from nose to tail, 
is about seven inches ; and of the tail, eight inches. The 
colour of the head, and of the whole part of the body, is a 



86 



QUADRUPEDS. 



dark iron, or blackish grey ; the belly is of a dull ash colour ; 
the legs are dusky, and very shghtly covered v^ith hair; 
the fore feet have only four toes, v^^ith a small claw in place 
of a fifth ; the tail is nearly naked, coated with a scaly skin, 
and marked w^ith numerous divisions or rings. This animal 
breeds frequently, and commonly brings about six or seven 
young at a time. Sometimes they increase so very fast as 
to overstock the place of their abode, w^hen they fight and 
devour each other. The female carries the young only for one 
month, and nurses one litter till she brings forth another. 

6. The Mouse is the " Mus musculus" of zoology, 
and a species of the genus in the second family ; tail round, 
naked. The colour is brown, ash-coloured beneath, with 
tetradactylous fore feet, pentadactylous hind feet, and a long 
nearly naked tail. It is a general inhabitant of almost every 
part of the old continent; and is supposed to have been 
imported into America, and it is now very numerous there, 
and in the adjoining islands. The mouse inhabits houses 
and granaries, follows mankind, eats all kinds of sweet and 
good provisions, and drinks little ; is gentle and very prolific. 
It is devoured by rats, cats, weasels, owls, and hedgehogs ; 
is destroyed by elder and hellebore, and is said to possess 
some small electrical properties when alive. 

Field Mouse. — The field mouse is the " Mus sylvaticus" 
of zoology, of the class and family with rats and the common 
mouse. The tail is long, scaly; body yellowish brown, 
white beneath ; breast yellow. This animal chiefly frequents 
dry and elevated grounds, and is found in woods and fields 
in great plenty. It is very common in all the temperate 
parts of Europe. They retire into holes among brushwood, 
and under the trunks of trees, where they amass large 
quantities of grain, acorns, and nuts. Swine often find their 
nests, and devour both the animals, and the stores of food. 
They collect the new-sown grain, and also feed on the young 
plants. Their habitations are detected by small mounds of 
earth thrown up near the aperture, when, by following the 
passages, the whole burrow may be destroyed. 



THE MOUSE. 



87 



The " Mus " genus forms a very numerous tribe of ani- 
mals, which multiply very fast, and are very destructive. In 
our island, the common and field mice, and the rat, are the 
principal destroyers; but in other parts of the world, other 
species, still more formidable, are found. Some confine them- 
selves wholly to vegetable food ; while others are polyphagous, 
and destroy indiscriminately any animal or vegetable sub- 
stance which they can get. Their pace is, in general, rather 
quick, and their residence is chiefly in obscure subterraneous 
retreats, from which they emerge chiefly by night. They are 
of a prolific nature, and the females are furnished with nu- 
merous teats. Some species are migratory ; others are local, 
and attached to the same residence. 

Rats and mice inhabit dwelling-houses, granaries, and 
corn ricks, where they commit very extensive depredations, 
devouring any cooked food, animal flesh, and grain. They 
make holes in walls, and below floors, and are destructive in 
various ways. Various methods have been recommended 
and used for the extirpation of these vermin. Poison is given 
in mixed lumps of some sweet and attractive le aven ; but it 
is dangerous for other animals, as dogs and cats. Traps are 
used, but they require a troublesome attention. Cats are 
useful for killing them ; but cats in a granary distribute a most 
offensive excrement, which is a greater nuisance than rats 
and mice. But the most effectual mode is to keepf some tame 
weasels, which can enter the holes of the rats and mice, and 
thus reach them in their abodes. The carnivorous voracity of 
the weasel is so very great, that it will not suffer a single ani- 
mal to escape. 

When new houses are erected, the foundations and corners 
should be carefully secured against the entrance of vermin, by 
mixing the mortar with gratings of iron and broken glass. 
The upper part of laid floors should be guarded with similar 
materials, in order to prevent the entrance of these burrow- 
ing animals, which destroy walls and floors as much as grains 
and cloths. Thatched roofs are very objectionable in lodging 
rats and mice. 



88 



BIRDS. 



Sect, II. Birds. 

The birds hurtful to the farmer are the rook, the 
pigeon, the wood-pigeon, and the pheasant." 

The word "fowl " is used to denote the larger, and " bird" 
the smaller kind of feathered animals. Among naturalists, 
birds are the second class of animals ; a race of creatures 
sufficiently distinguished from the others in having the body 
covered with feathers, and two feet and two wings, formed 
for flight. Birds have the mandible protracted and naked, 
and are destitute of external ears, lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, 
urinary vessel or bladder, epiglottis, corpus callosum, or its 
fornix, (covering of the two lateral ventricles of the brain or 
its arch,) and diaphragm. Birds are parted into two large 
divisions: Land birds, and Water fowl. The first division 
comprehends six orders. 1. Rapacious; 2. Pies; 3. Gallina- 
ceous; 4. Culombine; 5. Passerine; 6. Struthious. 

1. The Rook is a species of the genus Gorvus, the 
crow or raven. It is the " Gorvus frugilegus" of ornithology, 
of the order Picse. Bill sharp-edged, convexed above ; 
legs short, strong; feet formed for walking, perching, or 
chmbing. The generic character: Bill sharp-edged, front- 
let reversed. The rook is black ; front subcinereous ; tail 
roundish. It inhabits most parts of Europe, and extends as 
far as Western Siberia. It is a gregarious bird, and is some- 
times seen in immense flocks, so numerous as almost to 
darken the air in their flights, which they regularly perform 
morning and evening, except in the breeding time, when the 
daily attendance of both male and female is requisite to the 
purposes of incubation, or feeding their young. They begin to 
build their nests in the month of March, at least in England ; 
and their society seems to be regulated by a complete system 
of jurisprudence. They seem to have some idea of separate 
property. No one is allowed to carry off" the materials from 
another's nest, and every crime against the interests of the 



THE ROOK. 



89 



community is punished with severity. The dehnquent is at- 
tacked by those who are invested with authority ; he is by 
them chastised according to the nature of his offence, and 
sometimes banished from the commonwealth. They lay four 
or five eggs, and the male and female sit by turns. When 
the young are able to eat, they disgorge their food, which 
they keep in reserve in their craw, or rather in a sort of bag 
formed by the dilatation of the oesophagus. After the hatch- 
ing season is over, they leave the lofty trees where they 
nestled, and return not again till the month of August, and 
begin to repair their nests in October. Herons often take 
advantage of their absence, to lay and hatch in their nests. 
Rooks remain the whole year in England ; but they are birds 
of passage in many countries. In France, they announce the 
winter ; and in Silesia, they are the forerunners of the sum- 
mer. There are no rooks in Italy. The young ones are good 
eating, and little inferior to the pigeon. 

Rooks are very noisy and clamorous, especially when they 
have young. Ten or twelve nests are sometimes found on the 
same tree, and a great number of trees, thus furnished, form a 
"rookery." They seek out retirement and solitude, but pre- 
fer settling near human dwellings. 

The appetite of the rook is confined to grain, worms and 
insects ; it never prowls after carrion, nor touches flesh ; it has 
also the muscular ventricle and the broad intestines of the 
granivorous tribe. They commit serious ravages on new- 
sown corn-fields, and on barley and oats when nearly ripe. 
The strong bill penetrates the ground, and finds the root ker- 
nel, by following the tender shoot, so soon as it appears above 
ground. Large flocks fly together in the early harvest, and 
destroy the nearly ripened oats. They are also hurtful to the 
potato crops, both at the time of planting; and of forming in 
the ground, as they are able to dig and find the tubers, and 
then eat them. In order to prevent their depredations, the 
simplest and most effiectual method is by scaring them away 
by a person appointed to watch ; and the damage may be very 
much lessened by preventing the breeding of a large number 
by destroying the rookeries, and killing the young. A few 



90 



BIRDS. THE PIGEON. 



are very pleasant to behold ; when numerous, the balance is 
turned. 

It has been argued, that the rook is not so injurious to the 
farmer as is supposed, as it destroys insects that are hurtful to 
the young crops. But the insects which it devours are not 
injurious, except in some few places and circumstances ; and 
they contribute to fertilize the land by the decay of their dead 
bodies. The rook flies to great distances, and the ravages 
are extensive, and not confined to particular tracts of country. 
They are an impudent and mischievous race of birds, and 
should be allowed to multiply very sparingly. To winter-sown 
wheats, and in the spring, they are wholly ruinous, if they be 
not very closely watched ; other food is scarce at that time, 
and they congregate in vast numbers on the newly stirred 
land, for the purpose of devouring insects and the grains. 
At that time, a large field will require more than one person 
to watch ; for the rooks, when driven from one place, will fly 
to another ; and, by dividing themselves into parties, they em- 
ploy as many persons as the divisions they form. 

2. The Pigeon is a fowl bred in small houses or cotes. 
It belongs to the class Aves ; order Passeres ; and genus 
Columba. The characters of the order : Bill conic, pointed; 
legs formed for hopping ; toes slender, divided ; nest formed 
with wonderful art. They live chiefly in trees and hedges ; 
are monogamous, vocal, and feed their young by thrusting 
the food down their throats. 

Generic character. — Bill straight, simple, tapering, sinking 
at the tip; nostrils oblong; tongue entire. Specific distinc- 
tion : Bill sub-arched ; nostrils covered with a tumid mem- 
brane. These birds are remarkable for the deHcacy of their 
bill, and short legs ; their toes are generally red, and divided 
to their origin. They inhabit only the temperate and hot 
regions ; some are seen occasionally in Russia and in Sweden, 
but they always migrate southward as the winter approaches. 
None are seen in Siberia or Kamtschatka. 

The domestic pigeon is a well-known animal. They require 
a lofty building, well covered, and fitted up with numerous 



THE WOOD PIGEON. 



91 



cells. Yet they are not domestics, but rather voluntary cap- 
tives, or transient guests, who continue to reside in the dwell- 
ing assigned them, only because they are pleased with a situa- 
tion which affords them abundance of food and comfort. In 
the wild state, the pigeon has two broods in a year ; and in the 
perfect domesticated state they lay often ten, and even twelve 
times in a year. They seldom or never lay more than two 
eggs at a time; they incubate from fourteen to seventeen 
days, and one of the young is a male, and the other a 
female. 

Pigeons are very quick of hearing, and have a sharp sight. 
They are very nourishing food, somewhat binding, strengthen- 
ing and provoking urine ; as the animals grow old, the flesh 
becomes drier, more solid, and harder of digestion. Of all 
domestic animals they are confessedly the most decorous, 
pleasing, and vivacious. The wanton dalliances of the bird 
have made it to be feigned to be the symbol of love. The 
cock and the hen sit on the eggs by turns. 

Regular pigeon^ cotes seldom, in these days, belong to a 
farm ; but most farmers keep a few pigeons in roost over an 
under building, and opening by the gable-end, or in wooden 
boxes hung on the wall of a southern exposure. They are 
most particularly fond of pease and tare seeds, and, if they 
be numerous, they will damage a newly sown field of these 
legumes, and also in the fields when the crops begin to ripen. 
They can open the pods with their bills, but they cannot dig 
the ground like the rook. Beyond a certain degree, pigeons 
must be held to be injurious to the cultivation of grain : within 
due bounds, they do little harm; but, increased beyond it, 
they prove pernicious vermin, both to the new-sown crops, 
and to the early part of harvest. Watching the fields is the 
only guard against their depredations. They are timorous, 
and easily scared. 

3. The Wood piGEON.—This animal is much known by 
the name of the " cushat." It is a species of the Columba, 
and is the largest in size, being fully seventeen inches in 
length. The specific name is the " Columba palumbus," or 



92 



BIRDS. 



ringdove ; the bill is yellow in colour, the nostrils are covered 
w^ith a mealy red fleshy membrane ; the irides are pale yel- 
low ; the head, back, and wing coverts are bluish ash colour ; 
the upper part of the back incUnes to brown ; the lower part, 
rump, and fore part of the neck, are pale ash in colour ; the 
rest of the neck and the breast are vinaceous ; the belly, 
thighs, and vent are dirty white ; the hind part and sides of 
the neck are green gold, in some lights changing to blue with 
a copper gloss ; and on each side of the neck is a white cres- 
cent : the greater quills are dusky — all of them, except the 
outermost, have the exterior edges white ; the secondaries are 
greyish brown ; at the base of the bastard wing is a dash of 
white : the tail is ash-coloured above, with the end blackish, 
but beneath the base and ends they are black, the middle 
hoary ; the legs are covered with feathers almost to the toes, 
which are of a red colour, and the claws are black. This 
bird is found throughout Europe ; the greater part of them 
are emigrants in respect of Britain, departing at the end of 
the year, and returning early in the spring. They inhabit 
the woods, and build on the tops of boughy trees. 

The wood-pigeon picks the seed of peas and tares when 
sown in the spring, and also w^hen ripening in harvest. In 
the dissolution of snows, when the bulbs of Swedish turnips 
are exposed to view, the animal, being pressed for food, at- 
tacks the turnips, and with its strong bill it digs into the 
bulbs, and makes a hole, which retains water, and soon induces 
putrefaction. When the pigeons are numerous, very consider- 
able damage is done in this way to turnip crops. But the 
animal is very timid, and easily scared ; and the number of 
them may be easily kept within bounds. The cooing of this 
bird in a deep-shaded wood and in a still evening imparts a 
pleasing melancholy feeling that almost overbalances the small 
damage it inflicts. 

4. The Pheasant is the "Phasianus" of ornithology, or 
the bird of P basis, so called from being found in a native 
state on the banks of the Phasis, a large river of Northern 
Asia Minor. It is a species of our domestic poultry, and the 



THE PHEASANT. 



93 



generic characters are : bill short and strong; cheeks smoothed 
with naked skin ; legs of the male, for the most part, spurred. 
The common cock is the " Phasianus gallus," and the com- 
mon pheasant is the " Phasianus Colchicus rufous, head 
blue, checks red, papillous ; bill pale horn colour, tail wedged. 
The bird is about nineteen inches long, and weighs from two 
to three pounds in weight. The Argonauts first found it in 
Colchis, and imported it into Greece, whence it has spread 
very widely. We have no certain account at what time it 
was introduced into Britain. 

The pheasant is a very handsome bird ; the figure is dig- 
nified, the deportment bold, and the plumage resplendent. 
Though they may be domesticated, yet they always retire to 
a dark sohtude, and live as far as possible from human 
dwellings. They breed once a year, and lay about twenty 
eggs. The time of incubation is from twenty to twenty-five 
days. 

The pheasant is kept as a bird of pleasure in game pre- 
serves, where artificial cover is formed, and food is laid in 
profusion, in the shape of barley and potatoes. It eats all 
sorts of grains and herbs, and seeds of every kind, and also 
small insects. When numerous, they make depredations on 
new-sown beans, peas, and tares ; and in early harvest they 
attack grain of every kind. The size of the body tramples 
down more grain than it eats, and the strength of the bill en- 
ables it to dig the ground for seeds. The injuries done by 
pheasants are doubly offensive to the farmer, as he is pro- 
hibited by the game laws from using any means of lessening 
the number of the animals. The keeping of such nuisances 
within proper bounds forms the true protection to agricul- 
ture ; and not the raising the prices of food by artificial regula- 
tions, in order to starve the consumers by placing beyond 
their reach the very first elements of existence. 



94 



INSECTS. 



Sect. III. — Insects. 

An insect is an animal without bones, but covered with a 
hard skin; it has six or more feet, and breathes through 
spiracula or pores in the side of the body : yet insects are very 
different from, and must not be confounded with, vermes or 
worms. Quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, have all an internal 
skeleton of bones, to which the muscles are affixed ; but the 
whole interior of insects is composed of soft flesh, and the 
muscles are attached to an external shell, w^hich serves the 
double purpose of skin and bone, and which is completely 
exemplified in the crab and lobster. 

Another distinguishing criterion of insects is the colour of 
the circulating fluid or blood, which is never red ; and though 
a red drop of liquor be obtained from squeezing the animal, 
it does not appear to be the blood of the animal. The as- 
sistance of the microscope discovers a circulation, but it is not 
red. 

The insects and worms hurtful to the farmer are : — 

1. Caterpillars. 

2. Turnip fly, Aphis. 

3. Wire worm. 

4. Snail, or slug. 

Insects are either oviparous, or viviparous ; or the species 
is perpetuated by their laying of eggs, or by bringing forth 
their young alive. The former is the general case, there being 
but few instances of the latter. Insects propagate by laying 
eggs, in the winged state, from which they rise in the form of 
caterpillars or worms ; thence into the state of " Chrysalis 
and lastly into a "fly" state. The fly deposits the eggs in 
places of safety and of abundance of food. 

1. CATERPILLA.R. — It is the general name of all winged 
insects, when in the worm state. 

The caterpillars that do damage to cabbages, turnips, and 
gooseberry bushes, are deposited in the " ovum" state by the 



THE TURNIP FLY. 



95 



white butterfly and the " Phalsena," both insects belonging to 
the order Lepidoptera, having four wings covered with five 
imbricate scales resembling powder or meal. The butterfly, 
or Papilio," has the antennae or horns thicker towards the 
tip, and the " Phalaena" has them thicker towards the base. 
Caterpillars appear in March, and are most frequent on cab- 
bages and gooseberry bushes, though they are found at times 
on the leaves of all fruit trees. They are most voracious, and 
very quickly destroy every vestige of the leaves, and conse- 
quently prevent the development of fruit, and the growth of 
the vegetable. Various methods are used for removing them : 
smoking the animals to death by an upward flame of glowing 
brimstone, mixtures of black soap, flour of sulphur, mush- 
rooms, and rain water, have been sprinkled over the trees and 
bushes ; and " nux vomica " has been added with good effect. 
These and similar apphcations have all had a temporary effect, 
but the animals mostly always return in greater numbers. In 
gardens, where the extent of space is limited, and under the 
control of manual application, the most effectual method 
of destruction will be to shake the animals from the leaves, 
and catch them in a basket, and remove them wholly beyond 
the garden. Those that fall to the ground can be gathered 
up by spade or besom. TJie cabbages may be freed of them 
in the same manner. In the field, where hand labour would 
be very slow on account of the extent of the ground, and 
where the space of the depredations is so much more exten- 
sive, rolling of the plants is the only effectual mode of check- 
ing the destruction. The roll may be light, and the opera- 
tion may be more than once performed, as the animals, after 
being in any way removed from the leaves, will creep from the 
ground, and commence their work afresh. Apphcations of 
soot and hot lime have been used ; but these substances only 
reach the upper part of the leaves, and the animals live on 
the under surface. Besides, it is not certain that these sub- 
stances are destructive of animal life. 

2. The Turnip Fly is the Altica nemorum " of entomo- 
logy, being a genus of " Chrysomela" of the Coleopterous 



96 



INSECTS. 



order of insects, having two wing cases which shut together, 
and form a longitudinal suture down the back of the insect. 
The Chrysomela" has the antennae clavate, thicker to- 
wards the tip ; the club soHd or inflated ; the body ovate, im- 
marginate. The "Altica" belongs to the family Saltatoriae 
of the Chrysomela genus, having the posterior thighs much 
thicker than the others, and incrassated and formed for leap- 
ing. The wing cases are yellow, with the margin entirely 
black. 

This genus of insects are very numerous ; and both in the 
larva and in the perfect state they are found in woods and 
gardens, and feed on the leaves of trees and plants, the ten- 
der parts of which they devour, and reject the fibres. Some- 
times they infest the cotyledons only, and are very destruct- 
ive. They are ruinous to the turnip plant when it has 
only put forth the first leaf : the number being in myriads, 
a whole field is often wholly consumed in less than one day 
of favourable sunshine. The leaf of the plant is either wholly 
devoured, or it is so very thickly perforated with holes, that 
the growth is ruined. A particular temperature is required 
to produce the fly, and consequently its attacks are not re- 
gular, but are directed by the seasons. 

Various remedies have been used, and many more have 
been suggested in order to prevent the devastations of this 
insect. Sowings of soot and of quicklime, and decoctions of 
herbs, and sprinklings of urinary liquids, have been tried in 
vain. It has been suggested to squirt boiling water on the 
drills from a water-cart. But, if hot water did kill the ani- 
mals, it might also injure the plants in that tender state. The 
most effectual preventive is to push the plant very quickly 
beyond the tender state, by means of the land being in very 
fine tilth, and the manure being already in an active state to 
stimulate the growth. When the second or the rough leaf of 
the plant is put forth, the growth is safe, as the fly never 
touches them. 

3. The Aphis, or plant louse, is a genus of insects belong- 
ing to the order " Hemiptera " of zoology, having the upper 



THE APHIS. 



97 



wings half crustaceous, and half membranaceous, not divided 
by a longitudinal suture, but incumbent on each other. The 
generic character is : — Snout inflected ; abdomen two-horned. 
The antennae or feelers are longer than the thorax ; the wings 
are four, and erect, or they are wanting ; the feet are of the 
ambulatory kind ; and the belly often ends in two horns, from 
which is ejected that most delicate juice called "honey-dew." 
The number of species is unknown. 

These insects live entirely on vegetables. The loftiest tree 
is no less liable to their attacks than the most humble plant. 
They prefer the young shoots on account of their tenderness ; 
and on this principle often insinuate themselves into the very 
heart of the plant, and do irreparable mischief before they are 
discovered. But for the most part they beset the foliage, 
and are always found on the under side of the leaf, which they 
prefer, as it protects them from the weather, and other in- 
juries to which they would otherwise be exposed. They also 
attack the roots and the bark. Some of the "aphides," as of 
caterpillars, are general, and others are particular feeders ; 
and, like other insects, are more abundant in some years than 
in others. They are very common on hop plants, beans, peas, 
and sometimes on potatoes, and on most forest trees and 
shrubs. They appear in the spring with the first budding of 
the earliest plants, and proceed from small black oval eggs, 
which were deposited on last year's shoot ; if they come too 
soon, the frost often destroys them all. Those that withstand 
the severity of winter, are full-grown in April, when they 
begin to breed, after twice casting off their exuviae, or outer 
covering. Generation succeeds to generation during the sum- 
mer, and the increase is very great. They have many ene- 
mies, or the number would become beyond endurance. 

The " Aphis," by puncturing the tender leaves of plants, 
draws the juice to the wounded part, and exhausts it. The 
plant is thus deprived of the proper nourishment by circulation. 
Many plants grow deformed by the number of punctures 
made upon their leaves, and decay from want of the usual 
sap. Some thrive even when covered with these insects ; 
while others rise up into small hollow tubercles, which, on 

H 



98 



INSECTS. 



being broken open, disclose the numberless families that in- 
habit them. The galls or excrescences formed by the plant- 
lice, are often used in dying. 

No preventive or cure has yet been devised for the ravages 
of the aphis ; and the multitudinous attacks of the insect, 
and the smallness of its body, may ever render impossible the 
application of any remedy in the fields. In gardens, where 
the space is more limited, and the means more available, 
decoctions and hquids of noxious ingredients may be thrown 
upon the plants that are attacked, and somewhat check their 
progress. 

4. The Weevil is the " Curculio " of entomology, a genus 
of insects of the order " Coleoptera." The antennae are 
clavated, and rest upon the snout, which is prominent and 
horny ; feelers four, filiform ; club solid or inflated. The 
species of this genus are very numerous, upwards of 600 are 
now known ; many of them exceeding in brilliancy and lustre 
all powers of description, and principally distinguished by their 
colour. 

The larvae of this splendid tribe differ not from those of 
most other coleopterous insects. They bear a resemblance 
to oblong soft worms. They are provided anteriorly with 
six scaly legs, and their head is likewise scaly. But the 
places where those larvse dwell, and their transformations, 
afford many singularities. One of the minutest species of 
" curculio," at first hardly discernible without the aid of a 
microscope, is the ^' Granarius," or "Weevil," by some 
called the " Bond." The larvae are much dreaded in grana- 
ries, as they take up their abode within the grains of wheat. 
It is very difficult to discover them, as they lie concealed 
within the grain. There they grow at leisure, enlarging their 
dwelling-place at the expense of the meal, on which they 
feed. Corn lofts are often laid waste by these insects, whose 
numbers are frequently very great, and destroy much corn. 
When the insect is come to the full size, it remains within 
the grain, hidden under the empty husk, which subsists alone, 
and, there transformed, it becomes a " chrysalis ;" nor does it 



WIREWORM. 



99 



leave this abode till it becomes a perfect insect, and makes 
its way through the husk of the grain. It is not easy to dis- 
cover the grains that are thus hollowed out, as they appear 
quite plump and full, but they are much lighter, and swim on 
the surface of water. Other larvse of " curculiones" are not 
so fond of corn, but fix on several other seeds, as beans, peas, 
and lentils, and the heads of thistles and artichokes. The 
leaves of elms are often wholly destroyed by perforation. 

The French call the corn insect " Calandre," and the word 
" calandra " has been admitted into English nomenclature. 
The animal pierces the grain with the trunk, and the female 
deposits an egg in the hole, which are hatched into small 
worms, which are usually found with their bodies rolled up in 
a spiral form ; and after eating till they arrive at their full 
growth, they are changed into " chrysals and from these, in 
about a fortnight, comes out the perfect " calandre," or 
beetle. The maggot is found in the centre of grains, without 
trace of an aperture. The insect probably lays the egg in the 
blossom. The bread made from the affected flour is unwhole- 
some. The weevil is called " Calandra granaria." 

The best remedies are perfect ventilation, and a constant 
shifting of the grain. But the most effectual remedy for the 
farmer, and total preventive, is to lay no corn in granary, but 
to sell and deliver it immediately on being threshed. 



Class IV.— WORMS. 

1. The WiREwoRM is a name given by farmers to the larvae 
of several insects injurious to various crops ; they are species 
of the genus Elater," of the order "Coleoptera" of entomo- 
logy. They get the name of Elater" and " skippers or skip- 
jacks," from a power of throwing themselves up in the air, * 
when laid upon their backs. They have the antennse filiform, 
and a pectoral spine springing from an abdominal pore. 

Twenty-six species of the genus Elater" are found in 

H 2 



100 



WORMS. 



England. They are all easily distinguished from every other 
genus by the spine at the extremity of the thorax, a character 
which scarcely any other animal possesses. The larvae live 
in decayed trunks of trees, and in hillocks of old-raised earths. 
The colour is yellow, with the head brown, and the extremities 
of the jaws black ; the body constituted of twelve joints, shin- 
ing, and hard-skinned ; a few hairs appear over the body ; 
under the first three joints are six horny and pointed feet; and 
at the beginning of the last joint, which is round, there are 
two black spots, one on each side, which are probably the 
apertures through which it breathes. 

The wireworm is a most mischievous animal in different 
sorts of grain crops. It is very plentiful in old grass lands of 
inferior quality, and infests the crops for many years after the 
land is put under arable cultivation. They begin to work in 
March, and continue for about two months, during which 
time they heave and raise the soil by their under-ground 
movement, and cut the stems of the growing plants. The 
ravages are very often quite frightful on oats and wheat. 
Barley is later in being sown, and is not so much exposed to 
their attacks. They cease working after the stems become 
too strong to be gnawed and devoured. The animal is ex- 
tremely tenacious of life, and not easily destroyed. Quick- 
lime has been used ; but experience has shown that the worm 
not only lives but thrives when laid among quicklime alone. 
Continued heavy rolling of the land serves to check their 
progress ; but no thorough remedy has yet been found. The 
animal flies from wetness, and always retires to the top of 
the ridges where the land is dry. Where the land is flat, 
and where water stagnates, the animals may be drowned 
in winter, by laying the land in a level form over winter. 
Wetting and puddhng of the earth most eflectually banishes 
them. But few situations will admit this remedy owing to 
the natural formation. 

2. The Snail is the Limax" of helminthology ; the slug 
or naked snail, a genus of the order " Mollusca," or gela- 
tinous worms. 



THE SNAIL. 



101 



Generic character. — Body oblong, creeping, with a fleshy 
kind of shield above, and a longitudinal flat disk beneath ; 
aperture on the right side within the shield : feelers four, 
situated above the mouth, with an eye at the tip of each of 
the larger ones. Six species are known in Britain ; they com- 
mit great depredations in fields and gardens, especially in 
wet weather. 

The black slug has the body black, and furrowed with 
deep wrinkles. The length is from two to five inches : it 
crawls very slowly ; the feelers are always black ; back con- 
vex, shield rough, with numerous dots ; abdomen wrinkled. 
It is common in woods, meadows, fields, and gardens. 

The eyes of snails are in their horns, one at the end of each 
horn, which they can retract at pleasure. They produce 
young in the shape of eggs by the aperture of their neck. 
The copulation lasts ten or twelve hours, and they bring forth 
eggs at the end of eighteen days. 

Snails destroy fruits and vegetables in gardens, from which 
lime and ashes, sprinkled on the ground where they most re- 
sort, will drive them away. Their ravages in fields are best 
prevented by rolling, as the bodies are tender, and easily killed 
or hurt by being squeezed. The rollings may be repeated. 



103 



WOMS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. 

PUBLISHED BY 

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MODERN 

AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

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